STRENGTHENING OF THE INSTITUTE OF AGROFORESTRY AND WATERSHED MANAGEMENT, PHILIPPINES

 

ASIA-LINK PROJECT

 

DATABASE  OF UNPUBLISHED LITERATURE ON WATERSHED MANAGEMENT AND AGROFORSTRY AVAILABLE AT DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union.

 

 

CONTENTS

 

Click on the hyperlink to go to the relevant section

 

 

AGROFORESTRY.. 2

INTERCROPPING.. 2

Crops + Rostrata Species. 2

Crops + Calamansi trees. 2

Crops + Tamarind.. 9

Crops + Fast Growing Trees. 11

Crops + Acacia auriculiformis. 13

Crops + MPTS.. 13

Crops + Yemane. 16

Crops + Bagras. 18

Crops + Narra saplings. 20

Crops + Ipil-Ipil 21

Crops + Benguet Pine. 34

Crops + Kakawate as Hedgerows. 36

Crops + Rensonii as Hedgerows. 44

Crops + Alnus as Hedgerows. 45

ALLEY CROPPING.. 47

AQUASILVICULTURE.. 51

SILVIPASTORALISM.. 52

SERICULTURE.. 55

ALLELOPATHY.. 58

AGRICULTURE.. 60

FORESTRY.. 70

SILVICULTURE.. 70

GERMINATION.. 85

FORESTRY PROPAGATION.. 99

FORESTRY SURVEY.. 142

FORESTRY MANAGEMENT AND PRACTICES.. 149

SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT AND PRACTICES.. 152

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS.. 213

KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES AND PERCEPTIONS.. 224

POLICY.. 230

TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER.. 235

 

AGROFORESTRY

INTERCROPPING

Crops + Rostrata Species

Tiggangay, Jeremias B. 1992. Effects of Rhizobial Inoculation on Soy Bean Planted in Between Rostrata Species. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Nodule production is greatly influenced by the introduction of rhizobia that infects the root hairs of legumes. The rhizobia and leguminous plant work symbiotically in producing nodules which will later fix atmospheric nitrogen (N).

This study was conducted to determine the effects of inoculation on soybean planted in between rostrata species.

The study used Split Plot Design and the different treatments used were the following: Mainplot: L0 - without inoculation; L1 - with inoculation; Subplot: R0 - without rostrata; R1 - with rostrata.

The results revealed that soybean planted in between rostrata species showed no significant differences on the height of plant at blooming stage, diameter of nodules, number of nodules/plant, average number of seeds/pod, weight of 100 soybean seeds, yield/plot, and yield/hectare. However, the inoculated soybeans significantly affected the height, average number of pods/plant, diameter of nodules, average number of nodules/plant.

Crops + Calamansi trees

Abdullah, Lominog U. 1993. Effect of Plantin g Distance and Seeding Rates of Mungbean (Var. ID- 21) Intercropped with Calamansi Trees. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Planting distance and seeding rates of mungbean are necessary for smaller output in planting and bigger input in harvesting, especially if planted in between trees like calamansi.

This study was conducted at DMMMSU-NLUC to determine the effects of the planting distance and seeding rates on the performance of mungbean. It employed with 3 x 3 factorial in Randomized Complete Block Design. The treatments used were Factor A (distance of planting) Do- 50 x 25 cm, (control, recommended), D1 -50 cm x 15 cm and D2 – 50cm x 50cm and Factor B (seeding rates S), S0 – 2 seeds/hill (control – recommended), S1 – 3 seeds/hill, S2 – 4 seeds/hill.

The results revealed that the mungbean plants of different distances of planting had no significant differences in terms of height at maturity, length of pods, number of pods, seeds yield/hill, and net income/hectare.

On seeding rates used, 3 and 4 seeds/hill was comparable in terms of height with respective means of 88.36cm but two seeds/hill was significantly lower. Four seeds/hill had significantly greater number of pods/hill, seed yield and net income /hill.

The interaction between distance of planting and seeding rates showed that only the height of mungbean at maturity gave a significant result. The tallest was obtained by the plants spaced at 50cm x 50cm with 4 seeds/hill while the shortest were those plants spaced at 50cm x 25cm with 2 seeds/hill.

Results showed that mungbean plants planted at a distance of 50cm x 15cm with 4 seeds/hill had the highest net income of P1,167.14/ha.

The different planting distance used had no significant differences in all the parameters. Mungbean intercropped with calamansi with a distance of 59cm x 15cm with 4 seeds/hill is recommended for higher income.

Alambra, Shiela., 2001. Growth and Yield of Multiplier Onion (Allium cepa Linn.) Intercropped with Calamansi as Affected by Mulching Materials. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Mulching minimizes cultivation and weeding and also conserves soil moisture and soil temperature which are highly contributory to good yield.

The study was conducted to determine the performance of onion as affected by mulching materials, namely: control, rice straw, dried cogon and dried banana leaves.

An area of 100 square metes planted with 14-year-old calamansi spaced 2.5m x 2.6m and had an average height of 6 meters was laid out using Randomized Complete Block Design.

Results revealed that the mulching materials such as rice straw, dried banana leaves and dried cogon grass had comparable effect on multiplier onion in terms of the average plant height 120 days after planting, average number of bulblets per plant, average fresh weight of bulblets per plot and average dry weight of bulblets per plot. However, mulching materials have influenced the height of multiplier onion at 60 days after planting

Bongolan, Rodrigo L. Jr., 2000. Growth and Yield of Ginger (Zingeber officinale Rosc.) Planted Between Calamansi Trees as Affected by Organic Manure. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

To improve the growth and yield of a crop, fertilizer application becomes necessary. Organic fertilizers such as chicken dung and other waste manure of animals can be used as substitute for commercial fertilizer to supplement the necessary nutrients needed by the plants to maintain their growth and development.

This study intended to find out which of the animal manures tested could give the highest growth and yield of ginger under calamansi trees and to find out the cost and return of the study. An area of 120 square meters orchard of 4-year-old, healthy and vigorous calamansi trees with an spacing of 2m x 2m with a height of approximately 3-4 meters was laid out using Randomized Complete Block Design with 5 treatments and 3 blocks. The treatments used were the following: T0 – no application, T1 – 0.3kg Urea, T2 – 29.64kg carabao manure, T3 – 24.0kg chicken manure, and T4 – 11.75kg silkworm manure. Height at 30, 60 and 90 days after harvesting, number of pillar, number of tiller per hill, average weight of harvested ginger rhizomes per hill and average weight of ginger rhizomes/ha and yield per plot were the data gathered and analyzed using ANOVA of RCBD.

Results showed no significant differences on the height of ginger 30, 60, and 90 days after plating, number of tillers 30 and 60 days after planting, and the average number of pillar per hill. However, on the average number of tillers 90 days after planting, a significant result was observed among the treatment means. Silkworm manure resulted to the highest number of tillers which is significantly more than the other treatments.

On the other hand, ginger plants fertilized with commercial fertilizers still produced the tallest plants.

Castañeda, Dionito P. 1990. Performance of Tomato (Vc- lines) Grown in Between Calamansi as Affected by Different Levels of Chicken Manure. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Intercropping vegetables under calamansi plantation can increase the farmers’ income and at the same time improve the productivity of the lands.

The study was conducted to determine the productivity of the tomato applied with varying levels of chicken dung grown under calamansi and to determine the best level favorable for production of tomato.

The Randomized Complete Block Design was used with the following treatments; T1 - 67.14 tons/ha T2- 100.72 tons/ha and T3 - 134.029 tons / ha.

Findings of the study revealed insignificant results on the growth and yield performance of tomato grown under calamansi as affected by the varying levels of chicken dung.

Therefore, application of chicken dung as fertilizer for tomato is not applicable, as revealed by the result of this study.

Cleto, Rafael M. 2002. Growth and Yield of Ginger (Zingeber officinale Rosc.) in Between Calamansi Trees as Affected by Frequency of Foliar Fertilization. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Intercropping contributes to the production of more quality crops with high yields and it can minimize soil erosion. One among the potential agricultural crops to be intercropped in an agroforestry system is ginger. It is widely used for flavoring and in preparation of drinks, food, perfume and drugs.

The study was conducted to determine the best frequency of foliar fertilization that could give the highest growth and yield of ginger planted in between calamansi trees. The experiment was laid out using Randomized Complete Block Design with three blocks; each block was divided into five plots. The treatments used were T0 – control; T1 – once spraying, 30 days after planting (DAP); T2 – 2 times spraying,30 and 60 DAP; T3 – 3 times spraying, 30, 60 and 90 DAP; and T4 – 4 times spraying, 30, 60, 90 and 120 DAP.

Results showed no significant differences on the height of ginger plants and number of shoots at 30, 60, 90 and 120 days after planting. Ginger sprayed with foliar fertilizer four times produced the heaviest rhizomes per hill and per plot, and they had the highest mean leaf area. Ginger can be grown in between calamansi trees even without application of foliar fertilizer provided that there is a basal fertilizer of the urea (45-0-0) at the rate of 1.88g per hill.

Dingle, Ligaya G. 2001. Growth and Yield of Pechay Planted in Between Calamansi Trees as Affected by Kinds of Fertilizer. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Fertilization is one means of improving soil fertility to hasten growth and development of crops. Fertilizer is important factor to consider in the solution of nutritional deficiency in almost any kind of plant. It also promotes faster growth and higher survival of outplanted seedlings especially in poor soil.

This study was conducted to determine the growth and yield of pechay planted in between calamansi trees as affected by kinds of inorganic fertilizer. An area of approximately 72 sqm was prepared and laid-out, following the Randomized Complete Block Design. It was divided into four blocks and each block was further divided into four plots where treatments were randomly assigned.

Results of the study revealed highly significant effect on the height, number of leaves and weight of pechay plants sprayed with Bayfolan. Pechay without fertilizer was consistently the lowest in terms of height, number of leaves and the lightest in terms of yield.

Based on the results of the study, the researcher recommends Bayfolan in order to obtain the tallest height, most number of leaves produced, heaviest weight of plant at maturity as well as the weight of marketable yield. It was also recommended that any of the inorganic fertilizer (foliar and basal) may be used in the production of pechay in between calamansi trees.

Florania, Rowena O. 2001. Performance of Okra (Hibiscus esculentus Linn.) Intercropped with Calamansi as Affected by Different Seeding Rates. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Seeding rate is one of the most important factors that affect the growth and yield of a crop. If the seeds are to be planted in great number, overcrowding of plants may result and consequently production is reduced.

This study aimed to determine the effects of four seeding rates on the growth and yield of okra planted under 15-year-old calamansi trees. A total area of 58.5sqm including alleys was used and laid-out using Randomized Complete Block Design in three blocks with the following treatments: T1 – 2 seeds per hill, T2 – 3 seeds per hill and T3 – 4 seeds per hill.

The results revealed that the seeding rates used did not significantly affect the growth and yield of okra plants when intercropped with calamansi trees. Although, sowing of 4 seeds per hill resulted to the tallest plants 30 days after sowing, sowing of 2 seeds per hill gave the longest marketable pod per plot, and resulted to the highest number of harvested pods per plot, heaviest weight and highest number of harvested pods per plot, heaviest weight of harvested green pods per hill, which resulted to the highest computed yield in kg per hectare.

Based on the results, the best seeding rate for okra is 2 seeds /hill.

Leones, Alberto S. 1990. Performance of Two Forage Species Planted in Between Calamansi Plants. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Forage crops like centrocema and siratro are legume plants that fix nitrogen to other crops like calamansi trees, if planted near it makes a good source of feed for grazing animals because of its high protein content.

The study was conducted to determine the performance of these two forage species (centrocema and siratro), planted in between calamansi plants conducted from January 11, 1990 to April 11, 1990.

The result showed that centrocema had greater monthly length increment than that of siratro. The T – test revealed significant differences between the treatments used. On fresh weight, dry weight and computed yield of fresh weight per hectare, centrocema was heavier. However, the t-test showed no significant differences.

Based on the results of the study, the two forage species are comparable in monthly length increment and mean total length with no significant differences in terms of fresh weight, dry weight and computed yield per hectare.

Potingan, Joy W. 2001. Growth and Yield of Mungbean (Vigna radiata Linn.) Intercropped with Calamansi as Affected by Different Seeding Rate. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Agroforestry is a system of land management whereby forest trees and agricultural products are produced on appropriate and suitable areas simultaneously or sequentially for the social, economic, and ecological benefits of the community.

This study was conducted to determine the effects of seeding rates on the growth and yield of mungbean.

An area of approximately 58.5 sqm was used and prepared following the Randomized Complete Block Design. It was divided into three blocks and each block was further subdivided into three plots where treatments were randomly assigned; T1 - 2 seeds per hill; T2 - 3 seeds per hill; T3 - 4 seeds per hill.

Results revealed that 2 seeds per hill obtained the greatest number of pods per plant, while the rest of the parameters showed comparable effects of the treatments particularly on the height of seedlings at maturity, number of pods per hill/plant, weight of dry seeds per plot and yield in kilometers per hectare.

The best seeding rate is 4 seeds per hill because it resulted to the highest yield in kg/ha.

Ramos Jonathan. 2003. Profitability of Different Cash Crops in Between Calamansi Plantation Under La Union Conditions. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Intercropping of vegetable cash crops on calamansi plantation during rainy season is a common practice in the Ilocos wherein the environmental condition is considered favorable particularly in La Union. However, in many cases the intercropping schemes are unsuccessful due to the incompatibility of the intercrops and main crops mix or combination.

This study was conducted to evaluate the yield of four kinds of vegetable as intercrops for calamansi trees and to determine which is the most profitable. Using the Randomized Complete Block Design, there were four replications with the following treatments: T1 – eggplant (long purple); T2 – pole sitao (UPL PS #3); T3 – pepper (pimmasayan); and T4 – okra (smooth green).

Findings of the study revealed that eggplant was the most profitable vegetable intercrop in calamansi plantations.

Untalan, Jessheril. 1998. Performance of Baby Corn (Cargill var.) Intercropped with Calamansi Trees as Affected by Different Levels of Silkworm Waste. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Like in any other crops, proper nutrition is one of the utmost considerations in crop production, hence, the use of appropriate amount of fertilizer is indispensable.

This study aimed to determine which silkworm waste level would give the best growth and yield of baby corn intercropped with calamansi trees. The study was laid-out using Randomized Complete Block Design with three blocks and six treatments. The different treatments used were: T0 – control; T1 – 90kg/ha urea (15-0-0); T2 - 60kg/ha N of silkworm waste; T3 - 63kg/ha N of silkworm waste + 27kg/ha urea; T4 – 90kg/ha N of silkworm waste + 27kg/ha urea; and T5 – 117kg/ha N of silkworm waste + 27 kg/ha urea.

Results showed no significant differences on all parameters gathered such as height of corn at maturity, length and diameter of corn cobs, weight of husked and unhusked corn cobs, above-ground biomass and classification according to weight of unhusked corn cobs (Class A, B, and C).

Based on the results, corn fertilized with 90kg/ha N of silkworm waste + 27kg/ha urea produced the tallest plant at maturity, heaviest unhusked corn cobs, largest diameter of corn cobs and heaviest of above-ground biomass. Hence, this treatment is recommended.

Crops + Tamarind

Gaboy, Helen G. 1997. Response of Baby Corn (Hybrid cargill) Intercropped with Tamarind as Affected by Different Levels of Nitrogen Fertilizer under La Union Condition. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Agrisilvicultural system or the intercropping of agronomic crops like baby corn in between forest trees like tamarind contributes to the productivity and efficiency of forest lands, forest conservation and in enriching soil fertility.

The study was conducted to determine the best rate of fertilizer for the growth and yield of baby corn intercropped with tamarind and the cost and return of such intercropping.

The area was laid out using Randomized Complete Block Design with three blocks and each block was subdivided further into four plots. Each plot measured 1m x 3m. Treatments used were T0 – no fertilizer or control; T1 – 25kg N/ha; T2 – 50kg N/ha; and T3 – 75kg N/ha.

Results revealed that 75kg N/ha (T3) produced the tallest plants and most number of baby corn ears. All applied treatments have no marked differences on cob corn diameter. Of all treatments used, T3 application produced the highest net profit.

Inggay, Julio B. 2000. Performance of Sweet Corn (Zea maize Linn.) Intercropped with Tamarind as Affected By Three Sources of Nitrogen Fertilizer. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Sweet corn is one of the popular crops in the world because of the many uses and benefits that could be derived from it. In the Philippines, it ranks next to rice as the staple crop in production and consumption. With the usefulness of sweet corn, there is a need to increase its production and one way is through intercropping.

This study was conducted to determine the effect of urea, ammonium sulfate and their combinations on the growth and yield of sweet corn variety, Supper Sweet EW, intercropped with tamarind. Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications was used in the study.

Results of the study revealed that corn monoculture fertilized with ammonium sulfate + urea were the tallest, earliest to flower, earliest to bear fruits, and had the heaviest green biomass. The corn plants under control were the shortest, latest to flower, latest to bear fruit, and had the lowest green biomass. ANOVA revealed significant differences among treatment means. In terms of corn ear weight, length and diameter, corn monoculture fertilized with ammonium sulfate + urea surpassed those corns under control. The weight, length and diameter of husked corn ear revealed significant result among treatment means.

Based on the results of the study, sweet corn may not be fertilized given such similar conditions. The researcher recommends the use of any of the three nitrogen fertilizers and a similar study should be conducted to verify/establish the result.

Jimenez, Jimmy A. 1999. Performance of Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas Linn) Cultivars in Between Four Year Old Tamarind. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

One Agroforestry system is intercropping or the combination of agricultural crops such as sweet potato with four-year old tamarind. Potatoes are grown and provide early products. Rural farmers commonly use relatively easy cultural requirements to help farmers in the maximization of production even in a small farm.

This study was conducted to determine the effect of varietal differences on the survival, growth and yield of sweet potato as intercrops with four-year old tamarind trees.

Two hundred forty vigorous cuttings of sweet potato cultivars were used. An area of 36 square meters with existing four-year old tamarind, of three percent slope and partially shaded by trees of about 30-35% was used in the study. The tamarind saplings were pruned to one meter high to eliminate shading effect of the sweet potato plants. The study was laid out following the Randomized Complete Block Design with three blocks and each block were divided to four plots. The different treatments of potato cultivars used were: T0 – NPSP64 (Check variety), T1 – VSP5, T2 – VSBS17 and T3 – 90-07-02.

Results of the study revealed that PSBS17 had the highest number of secondary vines per plant and highest percentage survival. Analysis of variance on all the foregoing parameters revealed insignificant differences. VSP5 had the highest number of marketable tubers per plot and yield per hectare. Analysis of variance on both the number of tubers per plot and yield per plot revealed significant differences with VSP5 and PSBS17 consistently comparable with each other.

Based on the results, cultivars VSP5 and PSBS17 are recommended to be planted in between four-year old tamarind.

Crops + Fast Growing Trees

Baniqued, Corazon. (1983). Performance of Cassava (Golden Yellow) Planted Under Four Different Fast Growing Species. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

With the various uses of cassava (Manihot utilisima), there is a great need to increase its production by increasing the area for the growing of the crop. The utilization of the interspaces between tree plants will lead to maximum land usage.

The study was conducted to determine which of the different tree species would give the highest growth and yield of cassava. The treatments were arranged in Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications. The treatments used were: TA – yemane, TB – mollucan sau, TC – bagras, TD – giant ipil-ipil.

Results of the study revealed that cassava planted under mollucan sau showed the highest monthly weight and were the tallest five months after planting while the lowest were cassava planted under yemane trees, On the other hand, cassava planted under bagras produced the most number of storage roots per plant, high average yield per plot and computed yield in kilogram per hectare. Cassava planted under giant ipil-ipil produced the most number of marketable storage roots per plot.

Based on the results of the study, it was concluded that cassava planted under mollucan sau attained the highest height increment, and cassava planted under bagras produced the most storage roots and the highest computed yield per hectare.

Dalay-on, Jessie T. 1984. Performance of Cassava (Manihot utilisima-Var. Golden Yellow) Planted under Four Different Fast Growing Tree Species. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Plantations were developed for varied reasons not only for the utilization of wood but also their contribution to ecology. They can also be intercropped with cash or food crops which is one solution to the food shortage prevailing in the country.

This study was conducted to determine the performance of cassava planted under four different fast growing tree species and to find out which of these species would produce the best plants in terms of height and storage yield of cassava.

The study used Randomized Complete Block Design replicated three times. Each replication was divided into four plots totaling to 12 plots. The different treatments used were: A - Bagras (Eucalyptus deglupta Blume), B - Mollucan sau (Albizia falcataria (L0 Fosb.), C -Giant Ipil-ipil (Leucaena Leucocephala) D - Yemane (Gmelina arborea Roxb.)

Results revealed that cassava planted under Mollucan sau had the greatest monthly height increment and the lowest is planted under Yemane. Cassava planted under Mollucan sau produced the most storage roots and the least were planted under Yemane. Cassava planted under giant ipil-ipil had the most marketable storage roots while the least were planted under yemane. Cassava planted under Mollucan Sau gave the highest yield per plot and computed yield per hectare.

Cassava var. Golden Yellow when planted under Mollucan sau, Bagras and Giant ipil-ipil were comparable in all parameters observed. It was not applicable to yemane due to their poor exposure to sunlight enabling them to perform an abnormal photosynthetic activity. Planting cassava var. Golden Yellow under Mollucan sau, giant ipil-ipil and bagras is recommended and further studies should be conducted using wider spacing of the perennial crops.

Talledo, Arturo T. 1983. Performance of Cassava (Manihot utilisima-Golden Yellow Variety) Planted Under Four Different Fast Growing Tree Species. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines.

Cassava is one of the potential root crops rich in carbohydrates. With its multiplicity of uses, there is a great need for its increased production by using the hectarage for the growing of this crop. The utilization of the interspaces between tree plantations could be very well augment the present area for its production.

This study was conducted to determine the effects of planting cassava under four different fast growing tree species on the performance of the crop in terms of growth and yield.

The area is gradually sloping with an approximately slope ranges from 25˚ to 35˚. Cassava cuttings with a length of 20-25 cm were planted one meter between hills and one meter between rows at a slanting position. There were four treatments, replicated two times using Randomized Complete Block Design. The following treatments used were Ta – Yemane, (Gmelina arborea Roxb); Tb – Bagras, (Eucalyptus deglupta Blume); Tc – Mollucan sau, (Albizia falcataria Fosb); Td – Ipil – ipil, (Leucaena leucocephala Lam de Wit).

Results revealed that cassava planted under ipil-ipil trees consistently had the highest monthly height increment, most number of storage roots per plant, most number of marketable storage roots per plot and highest computed yield in kilogram per hectare. Analyses of variance in all data gathered were not significant.

Planting cassava under any of the four fast growing tree species is recommended to maximize the use of the land.

Crops + Acacia auriculiformis

Sotelo, Maricar B., 1998. Growth and Yield of Three Open Pollinated Varieties of White Corn (Zea maize, Linn.) Intercropped with Acacia. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Growing two crops at the same period and place will not only save time but will also add income and productivity of the area.

The study aimed to determine which of the three pollinated varieties of white corn (native variety, Tubao glutinous variety and macapuno variety) would give the best growth and yield when intercropped with acacia.

An area of 72 square meter with an average slope of 15%, planted with 5-year-old pruned at about 1.5 meters height Acacia auriculiformis, spaced at 1m x 2m with a height of 6-8 meters was used and laid out using Randomized Complete Block Design with 3 blocks.

Based on the results, Tubao glutinous variety significantly took longer days from emergence to flowering compared to the other two varieties which were comparable to each other. However, on the weight of husked and unhusked corn ears, and yield in tons per hectare, analysis of variance showed insignificant result.

Based on the findings, any of the three pollinated varieties of white corn can be intercropped with Acacia auriculiformis.

Crops + MPTS

Blaza, Leopoldo & Fraulien Mendoza. 1980. Comparative Study on the Yield of Different Varieties of Cassava Planted in Mixed Forest Stand Under DMMMSU Condition. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

 

With the importance brought about by cassava, it is necessary to find out which among the different varieties is suited for intercropping in the locality forested area condition. Most of the farmers are still ignorant as to what would be the best variety of cassava to be planted.

The study was conducted to determine which among the three varieties of cassava planted in mixed forest stand under DMMMSU condition will thrive best and give the highest yield. Randomized Complete Block Design with four replications and three treatments was used in the study. The treatments used were the following: A- golden yellow, B – native variety, C- white variety.

Results of the study revealed that treatment A gave the highest yield, followed by treatment B and C. In terms of average number of storage roots, treatment A registered the highest average followed by treatment B and C.

Based from the results of the study, the researchers recommend that any of the different varieties of cassava can be planted in mixed forest stand under DMMMSU condition.

Cruz, Enrico C. 1997. Performance of Garlic (Allium sativum Linn.) Intercropped at Different Distances From the Base of Selected MPTS. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

 

Agroforestry is considered one viable solution to counteract the emerging socio-economic and ecological problems. Regenerating denuded upland area by planting multi-purpose tree species at the same time cultivating high value crops can promote good impact on the socio-economic, biological, and aesthetic advancement of the community.

The study aimed to determine the productivity of garlic intercropped at different distances from the base of four selected MPTs and was laid out using the 3x4 Factorial in Randomized Complete Block Design which was replicated three times. The different treatments used were as follows: Factor A – different MPTs (T1Acacia auriculiformis, T2Samanea saman, T3Albizia lebbek, and T4Leucaena diversifolia) and Factor B – different distances of planting garlic from the base of MPTs (D1 – 30cm, D2 – 50cm and D3 – 70cm).

Results of the study showed that garlic intercropped with Albizia lebbek did not show significant difference; the three distances from the base of MPTS did not affect the growth of garlic; garlic planted at distance 1 had the highest net income, and there was no interaction effect on different MPTS and distance of planting in all the parameters considered in the study.

Based on the results of the study, intercropping garlic at 30cm away from the base of 16-month old MPTS use is recommended.

Gallardo, Sheila M. 1997. Performance of Three Upland Rice Varieties Intercropped with Indigenous MPTS. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

In view of the rapid population growth and greater demand for foods, cultural aspects like intercropping may contribute towards the production of more quality of crops and higher yields.

This study aimed to determine which of the different upland rice varieties and indigenous multi-purpose trees (MPTs) would give the best growth and yield when planted in upland area.

The study was laid-out using Split Plot Design with three (3) replications with the following treatments: Main plot (Species): S1 - Kamachile; S2 – Tamarind; S3 - Anchoan dilaw Sub plot (Varieties): V1 - UPLRi- 7; V2 - C-22; V3 - PSBRc-1.

Results of the study showed that UPLRi-7 significantly produced the longest panicle. The results of the parameters did not vary significantly among upland rice varieties. Panicle length, total spikelets count per panicle, biomass of the rice straw of the different upland rice varieties did not respond favorably to the MPTS.

The interaction between upland rice varieties and the species did not influence the height and length of panicle, total percentage spikelets, weight of 1000 grains and computed grain yield/ha of the different upland rice varieties.

The researcher recommends any of the different upland rice varieties to be used as intercrop to the MPTs.

Suliva, Jocelyn de Vera. 1993. Yield Performance of Peanut (UPL PN4 Variety) Planted in Between Different Multi-Purpose Tree Species. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

 

Intercropping is one method of producing several crops in the same area at a particular time. A stand of multi-purpose tree species are good nurse trees for cash crops. It improves the soil fertility of the area through the nitrogen fixed from the atmosphere.

The study was conducted to determine the yield performance of peanut planted in between different multi-purpose tree species. The area was laid out using Randomized Complete Block Design with four treatments and three replications. The treatments used were T0 - control (no inputs); T1 - Acacia auriculiformis + peanut; T2 - Acacia mangium +peanut; and T3 - Gliricidia sepium + peanut.

The results of the study showed that peanut planted under Gliricidia sepium produced the highest mean in all parameters taken such as fresh unshelled peanut weight, dried unshelled peanut, weight shelled peanut, weight computed yield per hectare and highest profit. Peanut grown under Acacia auriculiformis had the lowest result in all the data gathered.

Based from the results of the study, Gliricidia sepium is recommended as MPTS for intercropping.

Crops + Yemane

Deleña, Lilia. 1983. Performance of Corn (Glutinous synthetic) Intercropped with Yemane as Affected by Seeding Rates. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

 

In general, plants with close spacing and high rates of seeding are more susceptible to pests and diseases.

The study aimed to determine which seeding rates would give the highest performance in terms of growth and yield. Randomized Complete Block design with three replications was used. The different treatments used were: T1 – 2 seeds/hill, T2 – 3 seeds/hill, T3 – 4 seeds/hill.

Results of the study revealed that corn planted at 2 seeds/hill had the highest average monthly height increment; whereas those planted at 4 seeds/hill produced the lowest. For the final height at maturity, corn planted at 2 seeds/hill were the tallest, while the smallest were those planted at 4 seeds/hill. On the percentage survival, those sown under 3 seeds/hill had the highest while 4 seeds/hill was the lowest.

Based on the results of the study, using 2 seeds/hill is recommended.

Solis, Leonardo Jr. G. 1983. The Response of Cassava (Golden yellow Var.) Grown Undershade of Yemane (Gmelina arborea Roxb.) at Various Spacings. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Cassava is next to sweet potato in market demand and economic importance. It is grown in many parts of the country and easily adopts itself in areas having friable and not very dry type of soil.

This study was conducted to determine the response of cassava (Golden Yellow Var.) grown undershade of Yemane (Gmelina arborea Roxb.) at various spacings. It was laid out using the Randomized Complete Block Design replicated three times. The following treatments used were TA – Control, TB – 1m x 2m spacing of Yemane, TC – 2m x 2m spacing of Yemane and TD – 2m x 3m spacing of Yemane.

Results of the study showed that control had the highest monthly height increment, highest number of storage roots, highest mean weight of storage roots and highest yield in kg/ha.

Based on the economic analysis of the study, planting cassava between 2m x 3m spacing of Yemane is recommended since it showed the highest net income among the treatments used.

Somera, Jovito A. & Adela B. Saldaen. 1987. Performance of Three AVRDC Sweet Potato Accessions Grown Under Yemane (Gmelina arborea) Plantation. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

 

Intercropping sweet potato under established plantation of premium species like yemane is one of the most practical ways to minimize the increasing gap between food production and demand. Sweet potato helps eradicate weeds on grasses like cogon that keeps the slow growing of the main crop.

The study was conducted to determine the performance of three sweet potato cultivars in terms of growth and tuber yield when planted under yemane plantation. The Randomized Complete Block Design replicated 4 times was used. The different treatments used were as follows: T1 – CN 1280 -3, T2- 1232 – 9, T3 – CN 1028 – 15 and T4 – BNAS 51.

Results showed that there were no significant differences among the entries used in terms of average number of marketable tubers/hill, average number of tubers/plot, average weight of tubers/hill, average weight of tubers/plot and computed yield of marketable tubers in tons/ha.

In spite of the insignificant results, cultivars CN – 1280-3 produced the greatest number of marketable tubers/hill and average number of marketable tubers/plot while BNAS 51 had the lowest yield.

Vilog, Ponciano et.al. 1987. Growth and Yield of Soybean (Glycine max Merril) Grown Under Yemane Plantation as Affected by Varying Rates of Urea (46-0-0). BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Intercropping is one of the most practical ways of minimizing the problem of the ever increasing gap between food production and demand.

This study was conducted to determine the effect of applying varying rates of urea (46-0-0) on the growth and yield of soybean planted under yemane trees. The Randomized Complete Block Design was used in the study with the following treatments: T0- control (no application), T1- 1.2 grams/hill of urea, T2- 1.6 grams/hill.

Results of the study showed that unfertilized plants did not differ on the final height at maturity. On the other hand, plants applied with 1.2 grams/hill of urea registered significantly the highest mean weight of dried seeds/plant and yield of

soybeans/hectare.

Based on the results of the study, the application of 1.2 grams/hill of urea is recommended.

Crops + Bagras

De Vera, Rogelio.1984. Performance of Peanut (var. native white) Planted in Between Bagras as Affected by Varying Rates of Chicken Manure Application. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

All animal manures constitute the best source of maintaining soil fertility. Chicken manure is considered as a good source of organic matter.

The study aimed to determine the effect of varying rates of chicken manure on the crop’s performance in terms of growth and yield. Randomized Complete Block Design with 4 treatments was used. The treatments were: T0 – control, T1 – 88.8g chicken manure/plot, T2 -44.4g chicken manure/plot, T3 – 133.2g chicken manure/plot.

Results showed that plants not applied with chicken manure were the tallest at maturity while the shortest were the plants applied with 44.4g chicken manure.

The most number of branches and most number of pods was produced by the plants not applied with chicken manure. Analyses of Variance in all treatments taken were not significant.

Based on the results of the study, it is practicable not to apply chicken manure on peanut plants when intercropped with bagras.

Guerrero, Jose Guzman de. 1983. Response of Sweet Pepper (Capsicum annum Linn.) as Intercropped among Bagras (Eucalyptus deglupta Blume.) Trees as Affected by the Different Levels of Complete Fertilizer. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Intercropping of a certain major crop or tree is widely practiced in farming to economize space and adequate moisture of the soil. It is also one way of utilizing its nutrients and at the same time increasing income.

This study was conducted to determine the response of sweet pepper as intercrop among four-year-old bagras trees as affected by the different levels of complete fertilizer (14-14-14), namely: 4.3 grams per plant, 8.6 grams per plant and 2.9 grams per plant.

An area of 192 square meters, slightly rolling to flat was used following the Randomized Complete Block Design. The fertilizers were applied 3 weeks after transplanting by ring method.

Results showed that plants fertilized with 4.3 grams were the earliest to flower and to set fruit. Plants fertilized with 12.9 grams had the fastest growth rate while plants fertilized with 8.6 grams per plant produced the most number and heaviest fruits, with the highest computed yield per hectare in kilograms.

Based on the results of the study, 8.6 grams of 14-14-14 is recommended to be applied per sweet pepper when intercropped to four-year-old bagras trees.

Ochoco, Mary V. 1982. The Effect of Varying Rates of NPK Fertilizer on the Growth of Pineapple (Ananas comosus) Var. Hawaiian Intercropped with Bagras. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Fertilization is one of the standard practices to increase pineapple production today. But many farmers have used commercial fertilizer but they do not know the right amount and the time of application. This practice is not profitable, hence this study. The study aimed to determine the effect of varying rates of NPK fertilizer (14-14-14) on the growth of pineapple (Var. Hawaiian) intercropped with bagras (Eucalyptus deglupta).

The different treatments used in the study were the following: A - control (no application), B - 8.5-8.5-8.5, C - 13-13–13, D - 17.5–17.5–17.5. The study was arranged following the Randomized Complete Block Design.

Treatment C had the lowest mean. Analysis of Variance revealed no significant result among the treatments used. Furthermore, the most number of roots and leaves was observed in treatment D while the least number of roots and leaves was in treatment B. The Analysis of Variance on the number of roots and number of leaves showed significant differences on the treatments used.

Subadi, Roger L. 1983. Response of Cassava (Golden Yellow var.) Grown Undershade of Bagras (Eucalyptus deglupta Blume.) with Different Spacings. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Spacing of plants is important because it determines favorable competition for light, space, water and other minerals present in the soil.

This study was conducted to determine the response of cassava grown undershade of bagras with different spacing, namely: TA – 1m x 1m cassava without bagras, TB – 1m x 2m spacing of bagras, TC – 2m x 2m spacing of bagras and TD – 2m x 3m spacing of bagras.

Response of cassava in terms of monthly height increment in centimeters, mean number of storage roots and marketable roots at maturity, mean weight of marketable roots per plant as well as per plot and computed yield of marketable roots in kilograms per hectare, when grown undershade of 1 year old bagras of 2 to 3 meters height in an sloping area of about 3% gradient were gathered.

Findings showed that the highest monthly increment of cassava plants was obtained by 2m x 3m spacing, followed by 1m x 1m spacing, 2m x 2m spacing, and 1m x 2m spacing of bagras while cassava plants spaced 1m x 1m produced the highest number of storage roots, highest number of marketable roots and highest computed yield of marketable roots.

Analysis of variance showed no significant differences among treatment means except on the mean number of storage roots which was affected by different spacings.

Crops + Narra saplings

Binabise Tessie A. 1980. Growth and Yield of Peanut (Arachis hypogea Linn) Planted in Between Narra Saplings as Affected by Varying Rates of Chicken Manure Application. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Agronomic crops can be successfully planted in between forestry crops. One of the popular crops successfully planted in between tree crops is peanut.

The study was conducted to determine the effects of different rates of chicken manure planted in between narra saplings at the Regional Integrated Agriculture Research System (RIARS) site of DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union from November 7, 1983 to February 21, 1984. The treatments used were: Ta – control (no application), Tb – 333.33kg/ha, Tc – 444.44 kg/ha, and laid out following the Randomized Complete Block Design.

The application of 444.44 kg/ha resulted to the greatest monthly height increment, tallest plants, most number of pods, heaviest unshelled pods and highest computed yield. The unfertilized plants resulted the least in all the parameters taken.

Based on the results of the study, 444.44kg/ha of manure should be applied to peanut for better yield and should be planted during rainy season.

Orodio, Regina O. 1984. Growth and Yield of Soybeans (Glycine max) Intercropped with Narra Saplings as Affected by Varying Rates of Chicken Manure. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Intercropping of soybeans in between tree crops is a means of increasing income. Applying organic fertilizer such as chicken manure which is readily available and economical is imperative to produce better yield.

This study was conducted to find out which of the different rates of chicken manure would produce the tallest plants and highest yield of soybean.

The Randomized Complete Block Design was used with the different treatments used: Ta - control (no manure), Tb - 444.44 kg/ha, Tc - 333.33 kg/ha.

Results of the study revealed that the application of 444.44 kg/ha registered the tallest, produced the most number of nodules/plant, the most number of pods/plant and highest average yield/plant. The soybean with no manure application produced the least among the parameters used.

In all the data gathered, no significant results were found.

Based from the results of the study, the application of chicken manure at the rate of 444.44 kg/ha fertilizer for soybean is recommended to have the best growth and yield.

Crops + Ipil-Ipil

Andrada, Onofre Jr. (1983). Performance of Mungo (Var. ID-21) Intercropped with Giant Ipil-ipil as Affected by Varying Rates of Seeding, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Intercropping mungo with ipil-ipil trees may help in improving the production since ipil-ipil does not form a dense foliage formation. To fully improve the production, rates of seeding must be considered in planting.

This study was conducted to determine the growth and yield of mungo planted undershade of ipil-ipil as affected by varying rates of seeding. It was laid-out using the Randomized Complete Block Design with four blocks. The seeds were soaked overnight and planted the following day. The different treatments used were TA - 2 plants per hill, TB -3 plants per hill, TC - 4 plants per hill, and TD - 5 plants per hill.

Results of the study revealed that plants under Td were the tallest, highest number of matured pods per plant and had the heaviest weight of dried mungo seeds per plot. As to the computed yield per hectare, Td produced the highest. However, analysis of variance revealed insignificant result.

Baculi, Mito M. 1983. Comparative Study on the Yield of Different Varieties of Sorghum (Sorghum vulgaris Pers.) Planted Between Giant Ipil- Ipil. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Intercropping is one of the most practical ways to minimize the problem in increasing gap between food production and demand.

This study was undertaken to answer the problem, “What variety of sorghum is good for intercropping, and would perform best in terms of yield?”

The Randomized Complete Block Design with four replications was used in the study. The treatments used were A - NK233, B - Darso, C – Goldfinger, D - Cosor I

Based on the results, the Darso variety had the highest yield per plot per hectare. However, it was comparable to NK 233 and Cosor I on yield per plot and computed yield per hectare. Any of these three varieties of sorghum used is recommended to plant as cash crop in between giant ipil-ipil trees. Further, a one - year - old giant ipil-ipil trees should be utilized in order to meet the sunlight requirement of the cash crop particularly sorghum.

Baludda, Rogelio K. 1980. The Effects of Depth of Planting on the Growth and Yield of Cassava (Golden Yellow Variety) Intercropped with Ipil-ipil. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

It is very important that farmers should know the proper depth of planting cassava especially when intercropped with trees. This has something to do with the competition of nutrients available in the soil.

The study was conducted to determine the effects of depth of planting on the growth and yield of cassava when intercropped with ipil-ipil. Randomized Complete Block Design was used with four treatments, namely: T1 – 20cm depth of planting, T2 – 25cm depth of planting, T3 – 30cm depth of planting, T4 – 35cm depth of planting.

The results of the study revealed that T1 gave the highest growth and yield of cassava and the lowest treatment was treatment T4. Analyses of variance showed insignificant differences among treatments used.

Based from the results, any of the depth of planting can be used in planting cassava in between ipil-ipil trees.

Caluza, Evelyn. 1982. The Response of Black Pepper (Piper nigrum L.) Planted Undershed of Giant Ipil-ipil to Chicken Manure. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Black pepper requires shade but this can be dispensed within areas when rainfall is evenly distributed. It is, however, worthwhile to note that shade trees become an important component of a black pepper farm located in regions which have dry seasons.

The study was conducted to determine the response of black pepper planted under shade of giant ipil-ipil to different rates of chicken manure. Randomized Complete Block Design was used in the study with 4 treatments, namely: T1 – control, T2 - 1kg/plant, T3 - 1.5kg/plant, T4 – 2kg/plant.

The study showed highly significant result on the length of vines and number of leaves produced one month after planting. Plants fertilized with one kilogram/plant had the longest vines and produced the most number of leaves while plants fertilized with 2 kg/plant had the shortest vines and the least number of leaves. Unfertilized plants gave the highest percentage survival while plants fertilized with 2kg per plant had the least number of plants that survived.

Carantes, Mauricio M. 1983. The Effect of NPK on the Growth and Survival of Pineapple (Ananas comosus Linn.) Planted Undershade of Giant Ipil-ipil. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Fertilization is the process of adding the necessary nutrients needed by the plants to maintain their growth and development and to have a higher yield.

This study was conducted to determine which of the different levels of NPK would give the best growth and survival of pineapple planted undershade of giant ipil-ipil.

Randomized Complete Block Design with the following treatments were used in the study: A - control; B - Soil Laboratory Recommendation; C - 200-200-200; D - 250-250-250; E - 300-300-300.

The results of the study revealed that plants fertilized with 250-250-250 were the tallest and produced the greatest number of leaves and the lowest survival of 95 percent, while unfertilized pineapple plants were the shortest and had the highest survival of 100 percent. Analyses of variance on the three parameters revealed no significant results. Based from the results of the study, any of the fertilizers used can be applied to pineapple planted undershade of giant ipil-ipil.

Cayabyab, Isagani Marlo. 1980. Comparative Study on the Different Varieties of Corn (Zea maize Linn) as Intercropped among Giant Ipil-ipil Trees. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Corn would be benefited if planted in between ipil-ipil trees, since this tree is known as nitrogen fixers.

This study was conducted to determine which variety of corn would give the highest yield when intercropped with giant ipil-ipil trees. The different treatments were arranged using the Randomized Complete Block Design with four replications. The different treatments used were: T1 – UPCA variety 1, T2 – UPCA variety 2, T3 – UPCA variety 3 and T4 – native variety.

Results showed that on the average number of ears per plant, UPCA variety 1 gave the highest yield while native variety gave the lowest. Analysis of variance showed no significant differences among treatments. On the computed yield in kilogram per hectare, UPCA variety 3 produced the heaviest with mean of 122.22kg. Analysis of variance showed no significant differences among treatment means.

Based from the results of the study, any of the corn varieties used can be intercropped in three-year-old giant ipil-ipil trees.

Damaso, Jovencio P. 1980. Performance of Sweet Potato (Var. BNAS- 51) Intercropped with Giant Ipil-ipil as Affected by Length of Cuttings. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

With the various economic values and industrial benefits derived from sweet potato, it is therefore necessary that farmers should know the proper length of cuttings to be used in planting to produce maximum yield.

Nowadays, there are farmers who intercrop sweet potato in their ipil-ipil plantations, however they are not consciously aware of the correct length of cuttings of sweet potato to be used; hence, the study.

Randomized Complete Block Design was used in the study. The cuttings were planted in slanting position in a prepared lot of 128 sq.m. with four treatments, namely: TA - 30 cm long TB - 40 cm long, TC - 45 cm long, TD - 50 cm long.

Results showed that the use of 50 cm long cuttings resulted to the longest vines. Plants grown from 40 cm to 35 cm long cuttings produced the most marketable tubers. Analysis of variance however, showed no significant results. Thirty five (35) cm long cuttings had the heaviest marketable tubers per plot and highest yield. Analysis of Variance showed highly significant result.

Cuttings from 35 to 40 cm in length resulted to the highest yield, hence these are recommended as planting materials for sweet potato intercropped with giant ipil-ipil.

Dizon, Adelaida P. 1983. Performance of Peanut (Native red var.) as Affected by the Rates of Seeding Planted under Giant Ipil-ipil. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

During the early stage of tree development, the possibility of intercropping, especially cash crops, are one of the effective ways of maximizing land use resulting to the increase of income.

This study was conducted to determine which of the rates of seeding would give the best growth and yield of peanut when planted under giant ipil-ipil from September 1982 to January 1983 at the ipil-ipil tree farm at the BLISS site of DMMMSU. Randomized Complete Block Design with the following treatments were used: T1 – 1 seed /hill, T2 – 2 seeds/hill, T3 – 3 seeds/hill, T4 – 4 seeds/hill using the Randomized Complete Block

Design.

The study showed that treatment 4 had significantly produced the tallest, heaviest weight of pods, heaviest seeds and computed yield per hectare. On the other hand, T1 produced the lightest in weight of pods, shortest height, least weight of seeds and least computed yield per hectare.

Based on the results of the study, four seeds per hill is recommended as the best rate of seeding when planting peanut under giant ipil-ipil.

Jose, Jocelyn E. 1984. Performance of Sweet Pepper (Var.California Wonder) Planted Under Giant Ipil-ipil as Affected by Varying Rates of Chicken Manure. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Intercropping of sweet pepper with certain major crops is probably advisable since it is one way of utilizing soil nutrients and at the same time increasing income. Manure is one of the most important by-products of animal and with its use, the farmers will be able to economize because it is abundant and locally available.

This study was conducted to determine which of the varying rates of chicken manure would result to the best growth and yield of sweet pepper planted under giant ipil-ipil trees. The rates of chicken manure were based on its analysis. Holes were dug 30 cm between rows and 50 cm between hills. Following the different rates, the decomposed chicken manure was weighed and applied in the holes just before transplanting. The experiment was laid out following the Randomized Complete Block Design. The treatments used were T0 - Control (no manure), T1 - 25 g of chicken manure per hill, T2 - 30 g of chicken manure per hill, T3 - 35 g of chicken manure per hill.

Results revealed that application of 35g of chicken manure had the most number of fruits per plant and highest computed yield per hectare.

Marzo, Bella U. 1983. Growth and Yield of Winged bean (Var. R 15 mixed) Planted Under Giant ipil-ipil as Affected by Different Seeding Rates, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Seeding rate is one of the most important factors that affect the growth and yield of winged bean. If seeds are to be planted in great number, overcrowding result and as a consequence production is reduced. High seeding rate also results in waste of seeds and consequently affects the economic returns.

The study was conducted to determine which of the different rates of seeding of winged bean planted under giant ipil-ipil trees would result to the best growth and highest yield in terms of green pods.

Randomized Complete Block Design at the BLISS II site of DMMMSU-NLUC, Bacnotan La Union was used in the study. The treatments used were the following: T1 - one seeds per hill, T2 - two seeds/hill, T3 – three seeds/hill, and T4 - four seeds/hill.

The results revealed that different seeding rates did not significantly affect the growth, survival and green pod yield of winged beans although three seeds per hill resulted to the highest number of pods per plot, heaviest and highest percentage survival.

Nava, Inocencia S. 1983. Performance of Sweet Potato (Var. BNAS- 51) Planted Under Giant Ipil-ipil Trees as Affected by Time of Topping. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Topping may adversely affect the physical process of the sweet potato plants. The timing of topping must be determined to effect less interference during the tuber formation of the sweet potato.

This study was conducted to determine whether the time of topping has an effect on sweet potato plants in terms of number of shoots produced, weight of vines, number of tubers and weight of tubers.

The experimental design used was the Randomized Complete Block Design with the following treatments: Ta- untopped (control), Tb- topped 1.5 months after planting, Tc- topped 2 months after planting, Td- topped 2.5 months after planting.

Sweet potato topped 2 months after planting registered the highest number of shoots and the plants topped 1.5 months after planting produced the highest number of tubers per plant, weight of tuber plant, weight of vines per plant and weight of tubers per plant.

However, the analysis of variance on all the data gathered registered no significant

difference.

Based from the results of the study, any of the treatments used can be followed in topping sweet potato.

Obejera, Ines C. 1984. Performance of Irish Potato (Var. Cosima) Planted in Between Giant Ipil-ipil Trees as Affected by Spacing. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

In view of the rapid population growth and greater demand for food, cultural aspect like proper spacing may contribute towards the production of more quality crops and high yields and in the same manner utilization of interspaces between tree plants will lead to maximum land usage.

This study aimed to determine which spacing would give the best results in terms of growth and yield of Irish potato (Solanum tuberosum).

The treatments were arranged following the Randomized Complete Block Design. The treatments used were: Ta - 20 x 70 cm, Tb - 30 cm x 70 cm, Tc - 40 cm x 70 cm, and Td - 50 cm x 70 cm.

The results of the study revealed that Tc gained the tallest and Ta produced the most number of tubers, heaviest weight and highest computed yield. However, analysis of variance revealed no significant differences among treatment means.

Obillo, Remedios. 1983. Comparative Study on Different Varieties of Corn (Zea maize Linn) as Intercropped among Giant Ipil-Ipil Trees. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Intercropping with ipil-ipil decreases weed growth and economizes the use of expensive chemicals and fertilizer. This also increases the yield of corn, due to the presence of nitrogen-fixing bacteria in all legumes. Another way to increase production is the selection of the right variety of corn to be planted.

This study was conducted to determine which variety of corn would give the highest yield when intercropped with giant ipil-ipil trees. The different treatments were arranged using the Randomized Complete Block Design with four replications. The different treatments were Ta -UPCA var.1, Tb - UPCA var.2, Tc - UPCA var.3, and Td - native

variety (control).

Results of the study showed that the four corn varieties used gave comparable number of ears per plant. On the total weight per plot and computed yield UPCA var.3 produced the heaviest grain yield. However, it is comparable with that of UPCA var.1.

Olbinado, Jovita. 1983. Effects of the Time of Lifting Vines on the Growth and Yield of Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas –Var. BNAS -51) Intercropped with Giant Ipil-ipil. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines.

Different times of lifting vines of sweet potato vary in its productivity due to the different variable conditions of the environment.

This study was conducted to determine the best time of lifting vines to produce the best growth and highest yield of sweet potato.

The following treatments were arranged in Randomized Complete Block Design: T1 - unlifted, T2 - lifting vines at 4 weeks after planting, T3 - lifting vines at 6 weeks after planting, T4 - lifting vines at 8 weeks after planting.

Treatment 2 produced the heaviest weight, most number of tubers, highest weight of tubers per plot and highest computed yield per hectare while the unlifted (T1) gained the lowest in all the parameters taken.

The analysis of variance on all the data gathered were not significant.

Based from the results, the researcher recommends that T2 which is 4 weeks after planting is the best time to lift vines of sweet potato.

Opeña, Marcelo L. 1983. Performance of Bush Sitao (Var. E.G. #1) Planted at Various Spacing under Giant Ipil-ipil Plants. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Intercropping leguminous species such as bush sitao under ipil-ipil can greatly increase the productivity of the soil and when planted at a minimum distance, it can produce a better and higher yield.

The objective of the study was to determine the effect of spacing on the growth and yield of bush sitao.

The Randomized Complete Block Design was used in the study with the following treatments: Ta - 20 cm x 50 cm, Tb - 30 cm x 50 cm, Tc - 40 cm x

50 cm and Td - 50 cm x 50 cm.

The result of the study showed that the spacing of 20 cm x 50 cm registered the tallest at maturity, produced the most dried pods/hill, heaviest weight of dried seeds per plot and highest computed yield per hectare. The analysis of variance registered highly significant result on all the data gathered.

The researcher recommends the 20 cm x 50 cm spacing for bush sitao when planted under ipil-ipil plants.

Palabay, Francisca M. Performance of Okra (Var. Clemson spineless) Planted under Giant Ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala) as Affected by Different Farm Manures. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Due to high price of commercial fertilizers, organic fertilizers are good alternatives. Animal manure is one of them.

The study aimed to determine the possibility of intercropping okra in between ipil-ipil trees as affected by different farm manures. The Randomized Complete Block Design with four treatments such as T1 – carabao manures in T2 – chicken manures and T3 –swine manure was used.

Based on the results of the study, chicken manure gave the best growth and yield and highest percentage survival of okra

Therefore, chicken manure should be utilized as organic fertilizer for okra plants.

Pocais, Violeta A. 1983. Performance of Irish Potato (var. Red Pontiac) Planted under Giant Ipil-ipil as Affected by Different Farm Manures. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Applying farm manures as organic fertilizer is the simplest and cheapest method with apparently fair success because it aids in the vigorous growth of the plants until they can sustain survival.

This study was limited only to the performance of Irish Potato (Solanum tuberosum Linn.) planted under giant ipil-ipil as affected by different farm manures, namely: chicken manure, swine manure and cow manure. Randomized Complete Block Design was used in arranging the treatments in an area of 96 square meters with estimated average slope of 10%, planted with three-year-old giant Ipil-ipil trees and spaced at one meter. The data gathered were: average monthly plant height in centimeters, average number of tuber per sample plant.

Results showed that plants fertilized with chicken manure were the tallest, produced the greatest number of tubers per plant, produced the heaviest tubers per plot and produced the highest computed yield in kg/ha while unfertilized plants were the lowest. The results of the ANOVA were not significant among the treatment means.

Based on the results, any of the manures used can be applied to Irish potato planted under giant Ipil-ipil.

Salamanca, Eric F. 1984. Comparative Study on the Effect of Tillage on the Growth and Yield of Mungbean (Vigna radiata) When Intercropped with Giant Ipil- ipil. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Infiltration of water is more rapid in tilled soil than in untilled soil, other conditions being equal. The cultivated one becomes saturated with more water which causes greater erosion (in areas with no hedgerows), leaching and carrying more ready soluble plant nutrients. However, when it comes to economic returns, the untilled method had higher return per peso invested.

The study was conducted to determine the tillage practice that would result to the best and highest yield of mungbean when intercropped with giant ipil-ipil trees. The Randomized Complete Block Design with four replications was used. Column differences between treatments were analyzed employing the T - test analysis. The treatments used were: TA – tilled, TB – untilled.

Mungbean planted on tilled land were taller at maturity, had longer pods and more seeds per pod than those planted in untilled land.

Tilling the land resulted to better growth and yield of mungbean and higher net return than not tilling the land, hence this treatment is recommended.

Sotelo, Cristina. B. 1984. Performance of Ginger (Zingiber officinalis) Planted Under Giant Ipil-ipil as Affected by Varying Rates of NPK Fertilizer Application. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Ginger known as luya is very important in food preparation. It is a shade tolerant crop and it needs fertilizer like NPK for its better growth and survival.

The study was conducted from July 14 to December 14, 1983 with a total area of 60sqm The treatments were: A – control

(no fertilizer), B – 20g NPK, C- 40g of NPK, and 42.85 g of NPK. They were arranged in Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications.

Results of the study revealed that plants applied with 42.85g produced the most number of shoots/hill, the tallest at maturity, had the highest yield/plot and had the highest computed yield/hectare. The unfertilized plants had the least number of shoots, shortest, lowest yield/plot and lowest computed yield/hectare.

Based on the results of the study, the use of 42.85 of NPK (14-14-14) on ginger planted under giant ipil-ipil resulted to the highest yield, therefore it is recommended.

Tadina, Josephine. 1983. Performance Golden Yellow Cassava (Manihot utilisima Ponl) Planted Between Rows of Giant Ipil-ipil Trees as Affected by Different Length of Cuttings. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Selection of cassava cuttings should be from a good cultivar. Any part of the cassava stem may be used for propagation but the best part is the matured portion of the stem with the exception of the part nearest to the root, for they are better than the middle one as well as the top portion.

The study was conducted to determine the performance of golden yellow cassava as affected by different lengths of cuttings. The study was laid out using Randomized Complete Block Design with four replications. The treatments used were: TA - 15 cm long, TB – 20 cm long, TC - 25 cm long TD - 30 cm long.

Results of the study showed that the different lengths of cuttings did not have any significant effect on all data gathered. However, the use of 30 cm cuttings resulted to the highest average monthly plant height increment and tallest plants six months after planting and most number of shoot per plant. The use of 15 cm long cuttings resulted to the lowest average plant height increment, shortest plant six months after planting and the least number of shoots per plant six months after planting.

Tapaoan, Marlyn M. 1983. Performance of Golden Yellow Cassava As Intercrop with Giant Ipil-ipil Using Different Portions of Stem As Planting Materials. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Portion cuttings of golden yellow cassava affect the growth, survival and yield of cassava because of the physiological process during plant growth and development.

The study was conducted to determine what portion of the stem will give the best growth and yield of golden yellow cassava intercropped with giant ipil-ipil. The different treatments used were: Ta - base portion of the stem, Tb - middle portion of the stem, To - upper portion of the stem. The treatments were laid - out using the Randomized Complete Block Design with four blocks.

Results of the study revealed that the plants under treatment A were the tallest, with the highest number of storage roots per plant, with the longest storage roots per plant and with the heaviest storage roots per plant. Likewise, treatment C was the shortest, with the least number and lightest storage roots per plant, and with the shortest storage root per plants.

Base portion of the stem is highly recommended as planting material for golden cassava when intercropped with giant ipil-ipil trees.

Uyaan, Cecilia D. 1983. The Performance of Garlic (Allium sativum) Intercropped With Giant Ipil-ipil as Affected by Different Mulching Materials. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Intercropping garlic with ipil-ipil is one method of increasing the production per unit area. Mulching garlic minimizes cultivation and weeding. It also conserves soil moisture and temperature which are highly contributory to high yield and prevents direct exposure of the plant to sunlight.

This study was conducted to determine which of the different mulching materials would give better growth and yield of garlic. The area was prepared with specific spacing of 20 m x 20 m. Drill method was used in planting. One clove of garlic was planted in each drill. Twenty five garlic cloves were planted in each plot. Mulching materials were placed just after planting. The different treatments were arranged in Randomized Complete Block Design replicated four times. The different treatments used were: T1 - control (no mulch), T2 - rice straw, T3 - banana leaves, and T4 - Cogon grass.

Results revealed that mulching with cogon grass resulted to the tallest plants, highest yield per plot and highest computed yield per hectare. Mulching with banana leaves obtained the highest percentage survival. Analysis of Variance showed insignificant result.

Valdez, Estrella L. 1983. Performance of Sweet Pepper (Var. California wonder) Planted under Giant Ipil-ipil Trees as Affected by Different Animal Manures. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Phils

In spite of the production and importance of sweet pepper, the demand for the crop cannot still be met because of the increasing population. It is necessary, therefore, to increase the present production through intensive cultural practices such as utilization of animal manures as fertilizer to reduce the cost of farm input.

The study aimed to determine the performance of sweet pepper planted under giant ipil-ipil as affected by different animal manures. The Randomized Complete Block Design was used in the lay- out of the study. The treatments used were: A - 5 grams of chicken dung, B - 22.3 grams of carabao manure, C - 18.6 grams of swine manures, D - control (no application).

The results of the study showed that the application of chicken manure produced the tallest plants, highest fruit yield /plot and highest computed yield/ha. The Analysis of Variance showed highly significant differences among treatment means. Percentage survival was not significant. Plants applied with chicken manure and under unfertilized plants both had 100% survival. Plants applied with swine manure had the lowest survival.

Based on the results of the study, chicken dung is recommended for sweet pepper when planted under giant ipil-ipil trees.

Villoria, Nestor C. 1984. Performance of Cacao (Theobroma cacao) Saplings (var. Forastero) Planted Under Ipil-Ipil as Affected by Different Levels of Azolla (Azolla pinnata). BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Azolla is highly suitable to increase the nitrogen content of the soil.

This study was conducted to determine which level of azolla as fertilizer applied on two–year old cacao saplings planted under 4-year old ipil-ipil would give the best growth and development of the crop.

This was limited only to the response of cacao saplings in terms of initial height and diameter, height and diameter increment and final height and diameter to the different levels of azolla, intercropped with ipil-ipil on an area having 4% slope and sandy clay loam soil type. An area of 3,200m2 was divided into four blocks using the Randomized Complete Block

Design with four treatments.

Based on the results of the study, saplings applied with 600 g/plant had the initial height of 1.49 m and had an initial diameter of 1.93cm. Plants applied with 900g azolla were the tallest, faster mean bi-monthly diameter increment and had a highest final height of 1.75m. Plants applied 600g obtained the biggest mean final diameter of 2.39cm.

Results showed that the use of 900 g/plant of azolla as organic fertilizer for cacao saplings resulted to the greatest bi-monthly diameter increment. The different levels of azolla were comparable in their effect on bi-monthly height, final height and diameter.

Watan, Mariano M. 1984. Performance of Cassava (var. Golden Yellow) Planted Under Giant Ipil-Ipil as Affected by Different Positions of Planting. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines.

This study was conducted to determine the effects of different positions of planting on the growth and yield of cassava intercropped with giant ipil-ipil at the ipil-ipil plantation of DMMMSU Bacnotan, La Union.

There were 204 cassava cuttings used in this study which were planted in the prepared experimental lot of 120 square meters with the following treatments: TA (vertical position), TB (slanting position), and TC (horizontal position). The Randomized Complete Block Design with four replications was used.

The results of the study showed that the horizontal position resulted to the tallest plants while the vertical position resulted to the shortest. Analysis of Variance showed no significant differences among treatments. Cassava planted horizontally produced the most storage roots per plant while those planted vertically produced the lowest. The use of slanting position resulted to the production of the most and cheapest marketable storage roots per plant and per plot and highest computed yield per hectare. The vertical position resulted to the least storage roots per plant while the horizontal position resulted to the least, lightest and lowest computed yield per hectare of marketable storage roots.

Based on the economic analysis, the slanting position is recommended to ensure high return when intercropped in between giant ipil-ipil.

Crops + Benguet Pine

Bugan, Senydee D. 1997. Intercropping of Vegetable Crops Under Partially Shaded Areas of Benguet Pine (Pinus kesiya) Forest. BSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

This study aimed to develop a new cropping system on the small highland farms and to increase the number of crops of high economic value planted in the same piece of land at a given time. It also aimed to discover suitable cropping pattern which involves the proper utilization of resources and appropriate combination of crop that may give rise to the discovery of the mutual relationship between crops.

This study was conducted to determine the performance of vegetable intercrops under partially shaded areas of Benguet pine. The two treatments used were as follows: T0 - vegetable intercrop grown in an open area, and T1 - vegetable intercrops grown under partially shaded area of Benguet pine.

Results showed that cabbage grown in the open area (T0) had the highest height increment and produced large sized heads and height yield while head of cabbage grown under the partial shade of Benguet pine (T1) had lower height increment, smaller heads, and lower yields obtained.

On the other hand, white potatoes grown in the open area (T0) gave the highest increment but produced lower tuber yield compared to white potatoes grown under the partial shade of Benguet pine (T1) which had a lower rate of growth increment but gave a higher tuber yield.

Meanwhile, green onions grown in the open area (T0) produced the highest yield while those grown under the partial shade of Benguet pine (T1) yielded the lowest.

Results further showed that green onions did not have good vegetative performance if grown under partial shade of Benguet pine; rather, green onion thrived best in areas where there is no shade.

Palalag, Narcisa. 1996. Vegetable Production Under Pine Forest Cover. BSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Phils.

Vegetable production under pine forest if properly implemented enables the close interaction of agriculture and forestry so that maximum benefit can be derived from both.

The study evaluated the growth and yield of bush bean, potato and pechay under various degrees of pine covers, namely: outside pine cover; inside pine cover (between trees); inside pine cover (near the trees) and inside pine cover (shaded portion).

Results showed that among the different crop species studied under pine covers, potato performed best but it was not greatly different from those grown outside pine cover. All the crop species tested may be tolerant under it.

Pechay produced minor growth differences in both inside and outside pine covers. This result indicated that the poor performance was not due to the effect of pine cover.

The vegetable crop species that may not be suitable to grow under pine cover for plain economic purpose is bush bean.

In holistic view of an Agroforestry system, however, bush bean is still an appropriate intercrop.

Crops + Kakawate as Hedgerows

Acosta, Arnel O. 2003. Profitability of Leguminous Vegetables As Alley Crops in Kakawate (Gliricidia sepium Steud) Hedgerows. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Increasing vegetable production per unit area can be achieved through intercropping, the most practical way of minimizing the use of land.

This study was conducted to evaluate the yield of mungbean, bash sitao, soybeans and pole sitao in alleys of kakawate hedgerows.

A parcel of land measuring 441.60 square meters with an average slope of 6 -10 degrees with existing 11-year old kakawate hedgerows located at the sloping agricultural land technology (SALT) of the ARDF of DMMMSU was laid out using Randomized Complete Block Design with 3 blocks. Weight of dried seeds per hill, per plot and per hectare; number of nodules per hill, weight of nodules per hill, net income and benefit cost ratio were the data gathered and analyzed statistically using ANOVA of Randomized Complete Block Design and Duncan’s Multiple Range Test.

The result revealed that pole sitao had the heaviest dried seeds produced, highest net income per hectare and benefit cost ratio while mungbean produced the lightest and lowest net income and benefit cost ratio.

Based from the results, pole sitao is recommended as alley crop in between kakawate hedgerows to produce higher net income and benefit cost ratio.

Agmaliw, Berwasan C. 1995. Green Yield of Vegetable Legumes Planted in Between Kakawate (Gliricidia sepium) Hedgerows. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Alley cropping maximizes the utilization of the land resulting to a higher income while improving the fertility of the soil.

This study was conducted to determine which of the vegetable legumes is suited to alley cropping system with kakawate hedgerows. The two-factor experiment of the Randomized Complete Block Design was used in the lay–out with the following treatments: L0 – lopping not applied and L1 – lopping applied and the subplot : A1 – snap bean, A2 – cowpea and A3 – bush sitao. The paired T -test was used in the analyses of the data.

The application of kakawate lopping had no effect in the alley crops. However, the t-test analysis revealed significant result on the number of pods of bush sitao/plot, snap beans and cowpea revealed insignificant results.

On the other hand, significant were observed in the following parameters: number of pods/plot, weight of marketable pods and biomass of alley crops except on the total number of pods of bush sitao which revealed significant result.

Based on the results of the study, bush sitao, cowpea and snap beans are recommended as alley crops in between kakawate hedgerows. However, they should be planted at the end of the rainy season for better yield performance.

Banita, Mibel D. 2001. Comparative Study on the Growth and Yield of Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) Varieties Planted in Between Kakawate Hedgerows. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Alley cropping is a type of Agroforestry System which involves the planting of agricultural crops between hedgerows of Multi- Purpose Tree Species (MPTS). The hedgerows are planted along the contours and the agricultural crops are planted in the alley of kakawate hedgerows. Eggplant is among the potential crops to be planted in alleys of kakawate hedgerow.

Employing Randomized Complete Block Design, the study aimed to compare the growth and yield of intercropping eggplant varieties in between kakawate hedgerows as an additional source of income and to select the best profitable eggplant suited to the kakawate hedgerows. This study had two treatments: jockpot hybrid, and casino hybrid. It was conducted at the Slopping Agricultural Land Technology (SALT) of DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union.

Results showed that jackpot variety obtained taller growth and higher total number of marketable fruits over the casino variety. Furthermore, there was a significant difference in plant height.

Based on the results of the study, the jackpot variety is recommended over the casino variety to be planted between kakawate hedgerows.

Collado, Caroline C. 1993. Effect of Kakawate (Gliricidia sepium) Hedgerow Pruning on the Height and Growth of Upland Rice. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Alley cropping system is one form of agroforestry technology which is suited to upland rice cultivation. Hedgerows are pruned to minimized shading on crops.

The study was laid out in a Randomized Complete Block Design with 8 treatments such as: TO- control, T1 - 10cm cutting height, T2 - 30 cm high, T3 – 50 cm high T4 - 70 cm high, T6 - 110 cm high, T5 - 90 cm high.

Results of the study showed that hedgerow pruning did not have any significant effect on the height and biomass of upland rice alley crop. The tallest hedgerow failed to suppress the growth of upland rice and the shortest hedgerow and no hedgerow failed to boost the same. Based from the result of the study, it was concluded that hedgerow height does not significantly affect the growth of upland rice in an alley cropping system.

Dangpalan, Maybelen Q. 2000. Growth and Yield of Baby Corn (Zea maize Linn.) Planted in Between Kakawate Hedgerows as Affected By Levels of Inorganic Fertilizers. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Fertilization is one important factor to consider in the solution of nutritional deficiency in almost all kinds of plants.

This study aimed to determine the best level of inorganic fertilizer (21-0-0) that would give the best growth and yield of baby corn when planted in between kakawate hedgerows.

It was laid out using the Randomized Complete Block Design with three blocks and six treatments. The treatments used were as follows: T0 – Control, T1 –142.85 kg/ha ammonium sulfate, T2 – 190.47 kg/ha ammonium sulfate, T3 – 238.09 kg/ha ammonium sulfate, T4 – 285.70 kg/ha ammonium sulfate, and T5 – 333.33 Kg/ha ammonium sulfate.

Results showed that according to Class A classification of husked corn cob weight, plants fertilized with 142.85 kg/ha ammonium sulfate obtained the highest yield with a mean of 17.68.

The author recommends the application of fertilizer at a range of 142.85 to 333.33 kg/ha ammonium sulfate can be used in planting baby corn in between kakawate hedgerows.

Dingle, Leticia G. 2001. Performance of Two Varieties of Okra (Hibiscus esculentus Linn.) Planted Between Kakawate Hedgerows. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Intercropping is the practice of growing more than one crop on the same piece of land at the same time. It tends to increase and diversify the production per unit area by minimizing the growth of weeds, minimize damages due to insect attack by the presence of alternate host plants, improve soil fertility, and ultimately increase farmers’ income.

This study was conducted to determine the appropriate variety of okra planted between kakawate hedgerows. Planting of different okra seeds was done following drill method at 3 to 4 seeds per hill with a depth of 2.0 cm and the distance of planting of 30 cm x 80 cm. The field experiment was laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design with 2 blocks. The treatments used were: T1 - Smooth green and T2 - Hagibis verde.

Results revealed that Hagibis Verde significantly performed better growth in terms of height at 30, 60, and 90 days after planting, percentage survival, highest number of fruits per plot and yield per hectare.

Dolor, Renato L. 2001. Performance of Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas Linn.) in Between Kakawate Hedgerows as Affected by Different Length of Vine Cuttings. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Sweet potato is one agricultural crop that can be introduced in Agroforestry farming as a cover crop. Vine cuttings are used as planting materials.

This study aimed to assess and determine the performance of different lengths of vine cuttings on the growth and yield of sweet potato intercrop with kakawate hedgerows in a sloping area.

The study was laid-out using Randomized Complete Block Design with the following treatments: L1 - 20 cm length; L2 - 25 cm length; L3 - 30 cm length; L4 - 35 cm length; L5 – 40 cm length.

Results of the study revealed that cuttings with a length of 20 cm had the highest number of roots produced while cuttings with a length of 40 cm had the lowest. On the weight of harvested roots per plot, cuttings with a length of 35 cm had the heaviest harvested roots produced, while cuttings with a length of 30 cm had the lightest harvested roots. In terms of percentage weight of marketable roots, cuttings with a length of 20 cm had the lowest weight.

Based from the results, the researcher recommends 35 cm long sweet potato cuttings.

Gacutan, Eric A. 1990. Performance of Corn (LB Lagkitan) Planted Between Hedgerows of Kakawate as Affected by Different Levels of Chicken Manure Mixed With Commercial Fertilizers. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Corn is one of the most popular and important major cereal crops. Therefore, there is a need to find ways and means of improving its yield as well as to ensure better harvest. One way of doing this is fertilization, being considered as one of the most important operations of profitable farming.

This study was conducted to determine the performance of corn (var. LB Lagkitan) planted between hedgerows of kakawate as affected by different levels of chicken manure mixed with commercial fertilizers. A land area of 315 square meters was thoroughly prepared by removing the weeds between hedgerows of kakawate trees. The level of mixture of organic and commercial fertilizers applied was based on the soil analysis. Corn seeds were sown at a distance of 75 cm between furrows while 50 cm between hills were maintained. Randomized Complete Block Design with four replications was used in this study. The different treatments used were: T0 – control, T1 – 1L chicken manure, T2 – 4.02 g/hill of 14-14-14 and 2.45 g/hill of 46-0-0, T3 – 1L chicken manure plus 4.02 g/hill of 14-14-14 and 2.45 g/hill of 46-0-0, T4 – 2L chicken manure plus 4.02 g/hill of 14-14-14 and 2.45 g/hill of 46-0-0, and T5 – 4L chicken manure plus 4.02 g/hill of 14-14-14 and 2.45 g/hill of 46-0-0.

Results showed that plants applied four liters of chicken manure plus half of the recommended rates of the commercial fertilizer (4.02 g/hill of 14-14-14) and 2.45 g /hill of 46-0-0 were the tallest at maturity. Analyses of variance on the mean weight of corn ears, biggest mean diameter of corn plant and biggest leaf area index were highly significant.

Based on the benefit/cost ratio, all treatments applied with pure commercial fertilizer are recommended.

Leal, Jovelyn L. 2000. Growth and Yield of Multiplier Onion in Between Kakawate Hedgerows as Affected by Mulching Materials. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Mulching has been an essential practice in growing onion crops since it minimizes cultivation and weeding, reduces maximum soil temperature and increases moisture in the soils. Materials commonly used are rice straw, but rain tree leaves, kakawate leaves and Anchoan dilau leaves are more adaptable and sustainable to the topography and environmental conditions.

The study was conducted to determine the effects of the different mulching materials on the growth and yield of multiplier onion in between kakawate hedgerows. An area of 60sqm with kakawate hedgerows including alleys was used in the study. The hedgerows had spacing of four meters and pruned at 1m height for alley cropping of onion. The area was laid out using Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications. The treatments used were: T0 – rice straw; T1 – rain tree leaves; T2 – kakawate leaves; and T3Anchoan dilau leaves.

Results showed that all mulching materials used were comparably effective but rice straw had the highest performance in terms of plant height and height increments, size of bulblets, number of bulblets per plot and yield of harvested fresh onion bulbs and soil moisture conservation.

Lopez, Imee Y. 2002. Effect of Fertilizer on the Growth and Yield of Ube (Dioscorea alata Linn) Planted in Between Kakawate Hedgerows. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Fertilizer is an important factor to consider in correcting the nutritional deficiency of soil. It helps improve the soil fertility and hastens growth and development of plants.

This study was conducted to determine the effect of fertilizer on the growth and yield of ube planted in between kakawate hedgerows. Parameters considered were the number of sprouts that emerged on 30 days after planting (DAP); length of vines on 30, 60 and 90 DAP, number of leaves 90 DAP; number, length, and weight of harvested tubers per hill, and weight of harvested tuber in kilograms per hectare. An area of 42 sqm was laid out using Randomized Complete Block Design with three blocks. Each block contained 10 hills, making it 30 hills for the whole study. The treatments used were: T0 – control; T1 – Sagana 100; T2 – chicken manure; T3 – swine manure; and T4 – urea.

Results revealed no significant effect of fertilizer in all the parameters considered. It has been recommended that ube can grow in between kakawate hedgerows even without the use of fertilizer.

Mones, Allan A. 1996. Performance of Eggplant Varieties as Alley Crop Between Kakawate Hedgerows. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

This study was conducted at the Sloping Agricultural Land Technologies (SALT) project of the College of Agriculture and Forestry, North La Union Campus of the Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University, Bacnotan, La Union from October 22, 1995 to January 22, 1996. It aimed to determine the varietal performance and the best variety of eggplant as an alley crop grown between kakawate hedgerows.

Using the following treatments, the area was laid-out using the Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications: T0 – Dumaguete long purple (Check variety); T1 – Batangas Long purple, T2 – Casino 901 Hybrid and T3 – Jackpot Hybrid.

Results of the study revealed that all the four eggplant varieties performed comparably in terms of plant height, number and weight of marketable fruits. Hence, any of the eggplant variety evaluated may be used as alley crop in between kakawate hedgerows.

Orine, Nelia O. 1996. Performance of Sweet Potato Varieties (Ipomoea batatas Linn.) on Alleys of Kakawate Hedgerows During Rainy Season. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

The concept of agroforestry farming employs forestry species and agricultural crops on appropriate and suitable areas either simultaneously or sequentially. This concept of farming has been accepted and practiced widely by the rural farmers because of the social, economic and ecological benefits derived from the system, e.g. establishing leguminous hedgerows such as kakawate and planting agricultural crops such as sweet potato on its alleys.

A study on the performance of sweet potato lines/varieties such as: NPSP08, NPSP64, NPSP48, NPSP160, NPSP160 and VSP2 (check variety) to evaluate their growth characteristics and yield potential when planted in an alleys of kakawate hedgerows during the rainy season was conducted at the Agroforestry Research and Development Farm, Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University, Bacnotan, La Union.

Results revealed significant variations on the number of tubers produced per hill with NPSP48 as the highest (14.40 tubers/hill) but was inferior in terms of number (2.0) of sweet potato secondary vines. VSP2 (check variety) was the lowest at 5.33 tubers/hill.

On the other hand, NPSP08 significantly produced more number of 8.53 sweet potato secondary vines which was comparable to all other entries, but statistically higher than VSP2 the check variety (4.07) secondary vines. Moreover, NPSP160 produced significantly longer sweet potato primary vines of 3.10m.

As regards to storage root yield in kilogram per plot or in tons/hectare, dry matter yield/hill and vine yield in grams/plot of the different sweet potato entries, result revealed no significant variations among the entries tested.

Based on the results of the study, none of the entries used produced or developed expected storage root yield at 97 days from planting.

Sagmayao, Narciso B. 1996. Effect of Distance of Planting of Upland Rice Varieties in Alleys of Kakawate Hedgerows. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

In view of the rapid population growth and greater demand for food, cultural aspect like proper spacing may contribute towards the production of more quality crops and higher yield. In the same manner, utilization of interspaces between tree plants will lead to maximum land utilization.

The study aimed to determine which of the different upland rice varieties and distance of planting would give the best growth and yield when planted in alleys of kakawate hedgerows. The study was laid out using the Split-plot Design in three replications. Mainplot: Variety (V), V1 – UPLR1-7, V2 – UPLR1-5, V3 – PSBRc-1, V4 – C22; and Subplot: Distance of Planting (D), D1 – 10cm x 25cm, D2 – 20 cm x 25 cm, and D3 – 30cm x 25cm.

UPLR1-7 produced the longest panicle and the highest 1000 grains/plot. UPLR1-5 significantly outyielded the other varieties and produced significantly the heaviest 1000 grains/plot. All other parameters did not vary significantly among upland rice varieties. In terms of distance of planting, all parameters did not respond favorably.

The interaction between upland rice varieties and distance of planting did not influence the height, panicle length, total and percentage spikelets, weight of 1000 grains and computed grain yield/ha of the different upland rice varieties.

Serra, Dante R. 1994. The Effect of Spacing on the Growth and Yield of Super Sweet Corn (Zea maize Linn.) as an Alley Crop in Kakawate Hedgerows. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

The practice of alley cropping, which is primarily based on spatial arrangement of crops grown in a particular farm space, is one viable alternative technology in upland farming.

This study was undertaken to determine the effect of spacing on the growth and yield of supper sweet corn as an alley crop in kakawate hedgerows. Randomized Complete Block Design with three blocks was employed with the following treatments used: (50 cm x 45 cm, 50 cm x 50 cm, 50 cm x 55 cm). It was conducted at the Sloping Agricultural Land Technology (SALT) project of the Agroforestry Research and Demonstration Farm, DMMMSU-NLUC.

The result of the study revealed that super sweet corn planted at 50 x 45 cm were the tallest but with lowest dry matter production. However, this treatment was not significantly different from the other treatments. Plants at 50 x 55 cm spacing produced the heaviest yield which was significantly higher than other treatments.

Based on the results of the study, spacing had no influence on the total height and dry weight biomass of corn plants. The yield of super sweet corn plant at wider spacing produced significantly heavier yield than closely spaced plants.

Crops + Rensonii as Hedgerows

Labcaen, Grace D. 2000. Growth and Yield of Baby Corn (Sweet Corn Var.) in Between Rensonii Hedgerows as Affected by Planting Distance. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Intercropping is one practical way to maximize the use of land. The practice of Agroforestry could improve the economic lifestyle of the people.

This study was conceptualized to determine the growth and yield of baby corn as affected by planting distance in between rensonii hedgerows, and to determine the best planting distance that would produce the best growth and the heaviest yield when planted in alleys of rensonii.

An area of 144 sq.m. with a slope gradient of 50 degrees and with established rensonii hedgerows was selected. Randomized Complete Block Design with three blocks was used. The following treatments were used: T1 - 20 cm x 60 cm; T2 - 25 cm x 25 cm; T3 - 30 cm x 30 cm; T4 - 15 cm x 45 cm; T5 - 50 cm x 70 cm.

The results of the study revealed that the different planting distance such as 20 cm x 60 cm, 25 cm x 25 cm, 30 cm x 30 cm, 15 cm x 45 cm and 50 cm x 70 cm had comparable effects on baby corn in terms of plant height and maturity, number of corn ear per plant, length of cob corn and diameter of cob corn. For a high yield per hectare basis, 20 cm x 60 cm distance is recommended in planting baby corn between rensonii hedgerows.

Quinto, Marites S. 1996. Effect of Planting Distance on the Performance of Okra (Hibiscus esculentus L.) var. Smooth Green in Alleys of Rensonii. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

One farming system for the rainfed uplands is the combination of okra and rensonii species in an agroforestry system in the uplands. Appropriate spacing of the okra is a problem in production. Proper distance of planting is a factor to consider to increase crop yield.

This study was conducted to determine which of the different distances of planting of smooth green okra would produce the best growth and yield when planted in alleys of rensonii. Randomized Complete Block Design was used in the study with the following treatments: T1 - 25 x 50 cm, T2 - 30 x 50 cm, T3 - 35 x 50 cm.

Results of the study revealed that T2 had the greatest monthly height increment and the tallest during the duration of the study. The planting distance of 25 x 50 cm produced the most number of fruits per hill and the planting distance at 35 cm x 50 cm yielded the heaviest pods.

Except the computed yield in tons/ha which was highly significant, Analysis of Variance in all the parameters taken showed no significant differences. Planting distance at 35 x 50 cm was significantly heavier compared to the close distance of 25 x 50 cm.

Based from the results of the study, the researcher recommends the planting distance of 35 cm x 50 cm and 25 x 50 cm in planting okra in alleys of rensonii.

Crops + Alnus as Hedgerows

Beroso, Nancy S. 1999. Growth and Yield Performance of Celery in Agroforestry System Involving Citrus with Alnus Hedgerows. BSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

Intensifying the use of steep areas without causing undue land degradation requires the application of sound farm practices. Combining forest crops with agricultural crops in a proper spatial arrangement can be an alternative food production system that can be adopted.

This study was conducted to determine the growth and yield performance of celery as intercrop in an agroforestry system involving citrus with alnus hedgerows, to compare the profitability of the farming system and to determine the rate of soil erosion in the cropping system involving celery as intercrop of citrus with alnus hedgerows.

The treatments involved the planting of celery as pure stand, celery as alley crop of alnus hedgerows with out citrus and celery as intercrop of citrus with alnus hedgerows.

Results showed that celery plants grown as intercrop in Agroforestry system involving citrus with alnus hedgerows were stimulated to grow faster with a weekly height increment mean of 5.58 cm. The highest percentage survival (97.33%) in this treatment also produced the highest total yield of 14.2 kgs, and consequently the highest total value of P497.00. Partial shading of celery by citrus and alnus hedgerows resulted to slightly thin petiole.

The total soil loss in the citrus-alnus celery Agroforestry system was found to be 9.96tons/ha. O.M., P and K contents of the soil increased after harvest of celery but soil pH decreased.

Santiago, Julie. 2001. Growth and Yield of Selected Varieties of Yam (Dioscorea alata) under Citrus-Alnus AF System. BSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

The contribution of exported products to the national economy is still very low due to the seasonal and low production of yams. With assured production, other potential products could be developed and exported. One way of ensuring yam production is by integrating it as a component of Agroforestry.

The study was conducted to determine the varietal performance of yams grown under citrus - alnus AF system in terms of growth yield and tuber quality.

Of all the varieties tested, Sampero took the longest number of days to emerge. Meanwhile, plant vigor significantly differed among the different yam varieties while the number of vines did not

significantly differ. “Daking” produced the most number of tubers followed by “Padikot” and “Sampero”. As to tuber skin texture, “Daking” had rough, uniformly smooth and grooved texture. “Padikot” had uniformly smooth and rough texture while “Sampero” had rough texture.

 “Padikot” had few rootlets that are scattered, under spaces and with a length of about half of an inch. “Daking” had deep rootlets that were found traversing the edible flesh and “Sampero” had moderate rootlets which are closely spaced. For the purple pigmentation, “Daking” had uniform deep purple at middle, whether near skin/mixture of white and purple and slightly irregular pigmentation

“Padikot” had purple flesh/uniformly deep purple pigment while “Sampero” was deep purple at middle, or dark purple to lighter. It was found out that Padikot and Daking had good performance as a component of the citrus-alnus Agroforestry system in terms of growth and tuber quality.

Further study is recommended to evaluate the land equivalent ratio of an agroforestry system involving yam, citrus and alnus.

 

ALLEY CROPPING

Abenoja, Melita S. 1996. Response of Baby Corn (Zea maize Linn.) to Different Seeding Rates in an Alley Cropping System. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Planting of agronomic crops like baby corn in alleys makes land utilization more efficient. It helps solve the problem of increasing gap between production and demand and in forest conservation. In alley cropping, seedling rates play a vital role in increasing young cob corn production.

The study evaluated the response of baby corn to different seeding rates in an alley cropping system. The experimental area was 180 square meters with 20-30% slope planted with existing one-year old flemingia hedgerows. The experimental design was Split Plot Design in the following treatments: Mainplots – without and with flemingia hedgerows; and Subplot – 4 seeds/hill, 6 seeds/hill, and 8 seeds/hill.

The results of the study revealed no significant differences on the effect of hedgerows with flemingia and hedgerows without flemingia on the height of baby corn, percent lodging, percent of corn plants that bear flowers, length of corn cobs, diameter of corn cobs and weight of harvested corn cobs. However, hedgerows with flemingia significantly resulted to the production of more corn ears, higher computed corn cob yield and better cost and return analysis.

On the effects of seeding rates and their interaction between the hedgerows and seeding rates, there were no significant differences on the height diameter of corn, cob yield/subplot, computed cob yield/ha and cost and return analysis of producing a hectare of baby corn.

Addawan, Rosemarie G. 1995. Performance of Upland Rice (Oryza sativa Linn.) Varieties in Alley Cropping System. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Alley cropping is a type of agroforestry system which involves planting of hedgerows along the contours and growing agricultural crops in the alleys formed between the hedgerows.

A study on the performance of different upland rice varieties, such as UPL Ri-5, UPL Ri-7, PSB Rc -1 was evaluated to determine which variety will produce the best growth and yield under alley cropping system. It employed the Randomized Complete Block Design with four blocks.

Results of the study showed that PSB Rc-1 gave a highly significant result on the height of the rice plants at maturity while UPL Ri-7 showed significant difference on the weight of grains. Length of panicle, total number of spikelets per panicle, percentage of filled grains per panicle and on the grain yield in tons per hectare were comparable for all the rice varieties tested.

Based on the results of the study, any of the upland rice varieties (UPL Ri- 5, UPL Ri- 7, and PSB Rc- 1) could be used in the upland adopting the alley cropping.

Bautista, Raul M. 1996. Evaluation of Promising Sweet Potato Clone (Ipomoea batatas Poir) in an Alley Cropping System. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

This study was conducted to evaluate the eating quality of the promising sweet potato clone (for leaf tip in an alley cropping system at the Agroforestry Research Development Farm (ARDF) from November 26, 1994 to February 18, 1995. Randomized Complete Block Design was used in the study. The treatments used were the following: T1 – LO76, T2 – NO76, T3 – NO56, T4 – NO01 and T5 – LO32.

The results of the study showed that the different sweet potato clones produced significant differences in terms of percentage survival and total leaf tip yield in kilograms per plant. Sweet potato clone NO76, NO56, NO01 and LO32 with means of 100% and LO76 (3.08 kg) respectively. As to the length of vine, number of branches per plant number of storage roots and tuber yield per plant (g) the analysis of variance showed insignificant differences among treatment means. However, sweet potato clone NO56 produced the longest vine (44.67 cm). Sweet potato clone LO76 produced the highest number of branches (10.33) while sweet potato clone LO32 produced the highest number of tubers (1.43) and the heaviest tubers (38.33 g).

Based on the findings of the study, sweet potato clone NO76 was noted to have the highest mean on the production of leaf tips (3.08 kg) and LO32 was noted to have the highest root yield (38.33 g).

Botengan, Norma. 1999. Soil Fertility Degradation in Two Selected Cropping System under Barangay Pico Conditions. BSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

In production, farmer’s utilization and management of land is dependent on the application of high rate and inappropriate inorganic fertilizer as well as “cocktailed” and banned toxic pesticides to maintain good harvest. As a result, the plants, animals, and most of all the soil physical and chemical properties are destroyed.

The prevailing fertility levels and the state of soil fertility degradation in two selected agricultural soils were studied through chemical analysis. The agricultural soils were taken from monocropping and crop rotation system while non agricultural soil was utilized as a basis of comparison.

Over-all values of pH, organic matter, nitrogen and cation exchange capacity were highly significant (lower) in the soil from agricultural soil than in the non-agricultural soil. Furthermore, the soils from crop rotation had significantly higher values in pH than that of the soils from monocropping (t-test).

The soil from crop rotation recorded significantly higher values in phosphorus and potassium compared to that from monocropping that crop rotation practice leads to a better fertility status in terms of phosphorus and potassium contents.

The level of degradation in pH organic matter content was highly significant in both cropping systems. In the crop rotation practiced, the level of degradation in cation exchange capacity was significant.

The result signifies that soil degradation persisted in both cropping systems; however, the extent was generally higher in monocropping system than that of crop rotation system, specifically, the level of degradation in pH which recorded highly significant than that of the crop rotation. Lower values of the above soil chemical parameters were attributed to the continuous utilization and indiscriminate management of the soil.

The obtained data on phosphorus and potassium content of soils under agricultural setting registered significantly higher values than those of non-agricultural soils, however, falling closely within the normal size range for phosphorus (15-50ppm) and potassium (200-2000ppm). These findings could be attributed to intensive and indiscriminate application of inorganic or commercial potash and phosphates

Solera, Carlito R. 1995. Competition between Hedgerow Species and Upland Rice in an Alley Cropping System. PhD Dissertation, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

The presence of hedgerow in an alley cropping system generated a negative effect on the alley crops. Yield reduction of crops near the hedgerows is caused by either light competition or nutrient and water competition. This reduction was observed in different parts of the tropics where alley cropping is practiced or experimented.

Two wet season experiments (1990 and 1991) were conducted in the acid upland of Southern Philippines to determine the extent of competition between the

hedgerow and upland rice in an alley cropping system. In the 1990 wet season experiment, roots of hedgerows of Cassia spectabilis and upland rice were separated by plastic barrier, trench and double plowing. The same method was employed in a Gliricidia sepium + upland rice competition study. The plots in both experiments were divided into two: one was applied 30kg P/ha and the other was not applied with phosphorus. The

hedgerows of both species were maintained at 50 cm. Another experiment (in 1990) was conducted to determine the effect of hedgerow heights (50cm, 30cm, and control or no pruning at all) on the growth and development of upland rice with the use of an existing one-year C. spectabilis hedgerow.

In the 1991 competition experiment, only the C. spectabilis hedgerow in the 1990 experiment was repeated, but with modifications in the treatments. The kill hedgerow and 1–m deep barrier were added.

There were no significant differences in height, grain yield, and total dry matter of upland rice alley crop among the plots that received the different lateral root pruning treatments. The installation of root barrier to eliminate the underground root competition did not significantly improve the growth and development of upland rice.

The killing of hedgerow and the addition of 1-m root barrier did not significantly increase the growth and development of upland rice in the alley. The application of phosphorus significantly increased the growth of upland rice. In all treatments, rows of rice near the height of hedgerows had significant effect on the growth and development of upland rice. The unpruned hedgerows significantly decreased the TDM, height and grain yield of upland rice, while the pruned hedgerows significantly increased the growth and development of rice.

The plowing of alleys in all plots might have eliminated the underground root competition. All roots of hedgerows were eliminated by plowing the alleys twice before the rice was sown. The damaged roots in all the alleys of the two hedgerows (every 2 weeks) retarded the growth of roots of hedgerows due to reduced photosynthesis. Hence, all root treatments did not have an effect on rice growth and development.

In the hedgerow height increment, the growth and development of rice were significantly affected.

It is concluded that underground root competition in an alley cropping system can be eliminated by plowing the alley twice. Roots of hedgerows can be completely destroyed by plowing. A hedgerow height of 50cm is optimum for alley cropping system.

Hedgerows, if not pruned, can be significantly suppress the rice growth in the alley. The lower half of the hedgerow had better soil qualities than the upper half.

 

AQUASILVICULTURE

Bindadan, Marcela O. 2001. Performance of Tilapia in Concrete and Earthen Pond in an Agri- Silvicultural System in Itogon, Benguet. BSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

Tilapia can easily be cultured in ponds, pens and cages, rice paddies, and also in concrete tanks. Ironically, current production is not sufficient to meet the demands and needs of the nation.

The study determined performance of tilapia cultured in earthen and concrete ponds as a component of an AF system and the income derived.

The results showed that tilapia reared in concrete pond had heavier weight thus producing higher yield. On the other hand, the earthen pond produced lesser yield due to smaller sizes and exposure of tilapia to inclement weather.

In terms of water temperature, the concrete pond was slightly warmer than the earthen pond. The warmer water temperature effected the least growth and heavier yield of tilapia.

The production of tilapia in concrete pond is recommended as a component of an agrisilvicultural Agroforestry system.

 

SILVIPASTORALISM

Afos, Paul P. 1983. Performance of Different Pasture Grasses Planted Under Ipil-ipil Trees. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

One of the most promising modifications of present day farming is the utilization of the space in between rows of trees. Grass is the cheapest feed for livestock. It helps prevent soil erosion and preserves the moisture content of the soil and makes the world a greener place to live in.

This study was conducted to determine the performance of four species of grasses planted under ipil-ipil trees. A slight rolling area of 52.25 sqm planted with 3-year old giant ipil-ipil trees with a distance of 2 m x 1.5 m was used in the study. Rootstocks of the four species of grass were planted at the rate of three rootstocks per hill with 10 hills per plot. The different treatments were arranged in Randomized Complete Block Design with four replications. The treatments used were T1 - Napier (Pennisetum purpureum Schumachi; T2 - Paragrass (Brachiaria mutica (Forsk.); T3 - Kennedy019 grass (Brachiaria ruziniensis); T4 - Guinea grass (Panicum maximum Linnaeus).

Results revealed that napier produced the highest computed yield. It performs best among the pasture grasses in terms of growth and yield.

Balawag, Decatur B. 1996. Comparative Study on the Performance of Broilers with and Without Ipil-ipil Soilage. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Some researchers revealed that feeding hens with Leucaena meals can dramatically increase production of eggs that hatch. Ipil-ipil, belonging to the Leucaena family, is being commonly used as feed supplement for livestock and poultry. The highly palatable and digestible evergreen tree is believed to have as much as twice (as compared with alfalfa) riboflavin and vitamin K, which enhances egg hatchability.

The study was conducted to compare the performance of broilers with and ipil-ipil soilage.

Sixty day-old broiler chicks were used in the study, distributed at random following the Completely Randomized Design replicated three times. The treatments used were: T1 – pure commercial mash and T2 – 50% soilage and 50% commercial mash.

Results revealed that birds fed with five commercial mashes obtained significantly better performance in terms of weekly gain in weight, profit above feed and stock cost and feed consumption than those broilers fed with 50% soilage and 50% commercial mash.

Benabese, Teresita B. 1996. Feeding Trials on Sheep (Ovis aries) Using Different Multipurpose Fodder Tree Legume Species. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines.

In many parts of the tropics and sub-tropics, there are shortages of feed supply both for backyard and commercial livestock production. Several feeding trials using multipurpose tree species that are high in protein may offer a promising means of improving animal performances.

Considering the potential of multipurpose fodder tree legume species as feed for ruminants, the study was conducted to determine which among the three multipurpose fodder trees (giant Ipil-ipil, kakawate and acacia) can give the best growth performance of sheep.

Nine sheeps were used in the study employing the Randomized Complete Block Design with three treatments replicated three times. The treatments used were: T1 - acacia leaves + concentrate, T2 – kakawate leaves + concentrate, and T3 – giant Ipil-ipil leaves + concentrates.

The results of the study showed that sheep fed with giant ipil-ipil leaves + concentrate obtained the heaviest final weight, highest gain in weight and highest in feed consumption. However, sheeps fed with acacia leaves + concentrate obtained the lowest in all the parameters.

Calibuso, Alicia P. & Ando S. Saydoquen. 1987. Comparative Study on the Performance of Three Selected Forage Grasses Planted under Nangka Plantation and on Cogonal Areas. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Phils.

Forage grasses like Alabang X, Guinea grass and napier are very important for grazing animals which can be grown in between rows of trees like nangka and also in cogonal areas. These also help prevent soil erosion, preserve moisture content of the soil and make the place greener to live in.

The study aimed to determine the performance of the three selected forage grasses planted under nangka plantation and on cogonal areas. Two separate areas with a combined measurement of 144 sqm including the alleys between rows and plots were used in the study using the 2 x 3 factorial in Randomized Complete Block Design.

Results showed no significant differences observed on the average number of tillers produced under nangka plantation and cogonal area.

Factor B (grasses) showed a highly significant result on the comparison among treatment means. Guinea grass and napier were significantly higher in terms of fresh herbage yield and survival than that of Alabang X.

Guinea and napier are highly recommended to be planted on both areas because they gave the best yield and performance.

Pasion, Rodel G. 1996. Performance of Growing Sheep (Ovis aries) Fed with Giant Ipil-ipil (Leucaena Leucocephala (Lam. de Wit) Leaves as Soilage. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

The unavailability and lack of grazing land and pasture land in the tropics is a cause for alarm in the Philippines and other developing countries. There is a shortage of field supply both in small-hold or backyard and commercial livestock production.

This study was conducted to determine the performance of growing sheep fed with giant ipil-ipil leaves as soilage. Randomized Complete Block Design with three treatments replicated three times was used in the study. The treatments used were the following: T1 – pure giant ipil-ipil leaves (ad libitum), T2 – giant ipil-ipil and concentrate and T3 – giant ipil-ipil and concentrate plus enzyme.

Results of the study showed that sheep fed with giant ipil-ipil leaves and concentrate obtained the highest monthly gain in weight, total gain in weight and profit above feed and stock cost. On the feed consumption and feed conversion ratio, sheep fed with pure giant ipil-ipil leaves had the highest mean while sheep fed with giant ipil-ipil and concentrate plus enzyme had the lowest feed consumption mean. On the feed conversion ratio, the lowest were the sheep fed with ipil-ipil and concentrate. ANOVA showed insignificant results.

Giant ipil-ipil leaves and concentrate is recommended as feed for sheep because it resulted to the highest profit feed and cost stock.

Soriano, Rosita D. 1993. Performance of Native Goats Fed With Two Different Tree Crop Species as Soilage. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

The depletion and shrinking of grazing land and rangeland in the tropics and sub tropics is a cause for alarm which will result in increasing soil erosion and reducing soil moisture.

This study was conducted to determine which of the tree crop species would result to better performance of the goats.

The T-test method was used in analyzing the data. Six native goats were distributed at random with 3 replications and were fed and observed with the following treatments: A - mulberry, B - Anabiong.

The results of the study showed that the goats fed with mulberry soilage were heavier than goats fed with anabiong. The T-test showed no significant differences between the two treatments.

Goats fed with mulberry had higher profit above labor and stock costs than those goats fed with anabiong.

Trongco, Condrito & Victoria Casero. 1987. Performance of Pasture Grasses Under Cashew (Anacardium occidentale) Plantation. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Maximum production of plant grasses is needed to support the increasing demand for livestock.

The study was conducted to evaluate the performance of three pasture grasses (alabang x, napier and guinea) planted in between cashew. The Randomized Complete Block Design with three blocks was used in the lay- out of the study.

The three forages planted under cashew trees had significant differences in performance in terms of survival rate, yield/hill and yield/plot. On the other hand, insignificant differences were observed in terms of the number of tillers produced/hill and yield per/plot.

Based on the results of the study, napier had the best performance in terms of survival rate, yield/hill and yield/hectare; hence, this is recommended.

SERICULTURE

Ancheta, Lilia A. 1998. Performance of Silkworm Hybrids Fed With Promising Mulberry Varieties Across Season. Institutional Research, DMMMSU-SRDI, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

The performance of six bivoltine silkworm hybrids (DMSU 115 x 101, DMSU 115 x 103, DMSU 102 x 103, DMSU 101 x 115, DMSU 107 x 102 and DMSU 101 x 103) fed with four mulberry varieties (Batac, S-54, K-2 and S-13) reared two times each during dry and wet seasons were studied from July 1997 to April 1998. The RCBD arranged in factorial experiment with three replications was employed.

During wet season, S-13 and K-2 were found to be the best among the four mulberry varieties tested as feed to bivoltine silkworm hybrids. These varieties outyielded Batac by 15.28 and 10.81%, respectively.

On the other hand, DMSU 115 x 103, DMSU 102 x 103 and DMSU 101 x 115 outyielded the check (DMSU 115 x 1014) by 8.98, 8.62 and 8.58%, respectively. These mulberry varieties and bivoltine hybrids are recommended during wet season.

During dry season, S-13 performed best among the four mulberry varieties as feed to bivoltine silkworm hybrids. This variety outyielded Batac with 16.36%. On the other hand, DMSU 102 x 103, DMSU 101 x 103 outyielded the check (DMSU 115 x 101) by 3.47% and 2.05%, respectively. These mulberry varieties and bivoltine hybrids are

recommended during dry season.

Ancheta, Lilia A. et al. 1994. Performance of Silkworm as Affected by Different Materials Used in Maintaining Relative Humidity in the Rearing Bed During Young Age. Institutional Research, DMMMSU-SRDI, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

The performance of silkworm as affected by different materials in maintaining the relative humidity in the rearing beds during young age was studied. The treatments used were the following: no materials, cloth, newspaper and foam pad as control. Two pieces of flour sack were used as material and coiled per piece, six sheets were soaked in a basin with 150 li of water set in a rearing tray surrounding the newly brushed silkworm larvae at two inches away. Every molting period from first to third instar, all the set materials were removed and reset upon resumption of feeding.

Performance of silkworm larvae subjected to the different materials for maintaining the relative humidity did not differ in all the parameters gathered.

On the other hand, yearly performance of silkworm during the rearing trials differed significantly except on the fecundity where the silkworms were comparable. Furthermore, 1993 (March - April) rearing gave significantly the highest mean weight of mature larvae, weight of single cocoon, shell percentage, pupation rate, weight of pupa, filament length, weight of raw silk, effective rearing rate, yield per box, net income and return of investment compared to 1992 (January - February) and 1994 (November-December) rearing months.

Astrero, Frediel. 1996. Comparative Study on the Methods of Spacing on the Growth and Survival of Mulberry (Morus alba L., variety S54). BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines.

The study was conducted to compare the square and rectangular method of spacing on the growth and survival of mulberry in terms of number of leaves, branches, branchlets, length of branches and percentage survival with 60cm x 60 cm (square) and 30cm x 120 cm (rectangular) as treatments. It was conducted at the Sericulture Research and Development Institute of the Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University, Northern La Union Campus, Bacnotan, La Union from October 23, 1995 to January 23, 1996.

Two hundred sixteen selected samplings of mulberry were used in the study with two treatments replicated three (3) times. The following treatments were used in the study: T1 – 60cm x 60cm (square method), T2 – 30cm x 120cm (rectangular method). Analysis of data was done with the use of T-test.

The study revealed that spacing of 60cm x 60cm (T1) or the square method of spacing produced greater number of leaves, branches, branchlets and length of branches of mulberry over the spacing of 30cm x 120cm (T2) or the rectangular method of spacing. However, no comparable differences were observed.

Furthermore, the rectangular method of spacing (30cm x 120cm) obtained higher percentage survival over the square method (60cm x 60cm).

Based on the results of the study, the square method (60cm x 60cm) is recommended over the rectangular method (30cm x 120cm) for mulberry, specifically S54 mulberry variety on flat areas. It showed a better performance on all the parameters (except for the percentage survival which is not affected by the spacing method) compared to rectangular spacing.

 

Quinzon. Guillermo R. 1998. Promising Varieties of Mulberry Intercropped with Cash crops. Institutional Research, DMMMSU-SRDI, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Using strip plot design, the study aimed to evaluate the possibility of intercropping cash crops in between the mulberry plantation as an additional source of income and to select the best profitable intercrop (such as tomato, pechay, okra and sweet pepper) suited to the different varieties of mulberry, such as Batac, MY sore local, S13, S54 and SRDC and M. Nigra. This study was conducted at the

experimental farm of SRDI- DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union.

Results showed that tomato intercrop significantly yielded best and produced the highest return of investment (ROI). However, all the crops studied can be used as intercrops as they produced profitable yield. Furthermore, there was no interaction effect between the variety and the intercrop, and the different varieties of mulberry yield and harvesting process.

ALLELOPATHY

Bonel, Precila F. et al. 2000. Allelopathic Effect of Benguet Pine (Pinus kesiya) on the Germination and Growth of Some Agronomic Crops. BSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines.

With the abundance of pine trees in Benguet, investigating whatever potentials are present in it particularly its inhibitory effects would economically benefit farmers.

The experiment was conducted primarily to determine the allelophatic effects of pines extracts obtained from the barks, leaves, and roots in varied concentrations – control (50%,75% dilutions and 100% dilution extracts) on the germination of beans, corn, cucumber, garden pea, mongo and pechay. Effect of pine extracts in different concentrations on the vegetative growth of beans and pechay, was assessed in Experiment II.

The seeds of beans, corn, cucumber, garden pea, mongo and pechay were treated with pines bark, leaf and root extracts with varying concentrations in Experiment I. The three extract used were: bark (A1), leaf (A2) and root (A3). For the different concentrations, the following were used: control (distilled water), 50% dilution (50:50 extract: water), 75% (75ml extract: 25 ml water), and 100% dilution (pure extract). Pure extract was derived by diluting 200g of the material in one liter water. This served as the stock solution (100%). Similar treatment was used in Experiment II with pechay and beans as test plants.

There were 12 treatments in Experiment I with extract source as Factor A and extract source concentrations as Factor B. Treatments were replicated 3 times. Seeds of the different test crops were germinated in different Petri dishes lined with moistened cotton and tissue papers. Percentage germination was obtained.

In Experiment II, seeds were germinated directly in polyethylene bags filled with garden soil. Ten days after germination, the different plants tested were sprayed with extracts which were prepared as in Exp. I. Similar treatments as in Exp. I were followed namely: different concentrations (control, 50% and 75% dilutions and 100% dilution) and extract sources. Subsequent spraying was done for four weeks. During this period, the height increment, fresh weight and percentage dry matter of the bean and pechay seedling were observed. The leaf area and the percentage survival were obtained only upon termination of the experiment.

For the two experiments, the CRD was followed. DMRT was used to test differences among treatments.

 In Experiment I, results showed that seeds subjected to 75% dilution and 100% extract (stock solution) did not germinate. Percentage germination of beans, corn, cucumber, garden pea, mongo and pechay was significantly reduced by barks, leaf, and root extracts. Among the three, the bark and the leaf extracts exhibited the most inhibition as shown on the percentage of germination. There was a reduction on the percentage of germination as an effect of the significant interaction between the three extract source and the concentrations. In Experiment II, results revealed a significant effect of Pinus kesiya extract source with varying concentrations on the early vegetative growth of beans and pechay. Bark and leaf extracts decreased the height, fresh weight, dry weight and dry matter of the test plants and the reduction was pronounced during the last 2 weeks of the 4 weeks observation period. Similarly, extracts with high concentrations starting from 75% significantly reduced the vegetative growth of beans and pechay and the inhibitive effects was delayed having occurred during the last 2 weeks. Seventy five percent and the undiluted bark and leaf extracts evidently caused a decrease in the leaf area. Percentage survival, though, of test plants was not significantly affected by the extracts although there was a decreasing trend on the percentage survival with higher concentrations of both bark and leaf extracts.

The study warrants the need for further research to determine suitable crops that could be grown under pine tree forests, thus maximizing the use of available land resources for food production.

De Castro, Clemence, T. 1994. Allelopathic Influence of Kakawate (Gliricidia sepium Jacq. Steud), Giant Ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala, Lam de Wit) and Teak (Tectona grandis L.F.) Leaf Leachates on the Termination of Selected Agronomic Crops under Laboratory Condition. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

In case of agricultural crops, same species could also secrete substances which will be detrimental to other plants. Allelopathic compounds are known to inhibit seed germination or produce growth by inhibiting cell division, reducing mineral uptake, increasing or decreasing respiration, and inhibiting protein and hemoglobin synthesis.

This study was conducted to determine the physiological interaction of kakawate, giant ipil-ipil, teak leaf leachates on the germination of kadios, cowpea, corn, sorghum, okra and ampalaya.

The experiment was laid out following the 4 x 6 Factorial in CRD with three replications. The different treatments used were: Factor A (Leaf Leachates), T1 – distilled water(control), T2 – Ipil-ipil, T3 – Teak and T4 – Kakawate; and Factor B (Agronomic Crop Seeds), A1 – Kadios, A2 – Cowpea, A3 – Corn, A4 – Sorghum, A5 – Okra and A6 – Ampalaya.

 Based from the findings, kakawate leaf leachates significantly enhanced earlier germination of seeds. Corn seeds as affected by the different plant leachates significantly exhibited the highest percentage germination and germination energy. Kadios seeds were significantly the earliest to germinate.

There was no significant interaction effect between the plant leachates and agronomic crops in all the parameters.

 

AGRICULTURE

Abubo, Sixto S. 1996. A Preliminary Survey of Fungal Diseases of Banana in La Union. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

This study was conducted to isolate and identify the pathogenic fungi-causing diseases of bananas in selected towns of La Union from November 1995 to January 1996.

Seven municipalities, namely: Bacnotan, Balaoan, Bauang, Caba, Santol, San Gabriel, San Juan Sudipen, and the DMMMSU Banana Experimental Project were chosen as survey sites.

Disease samples were collected and diagnosed based from the symptoms observed in the survey sites and from the signs each isolated microorganism studied at the Crop Protection Laboratory room.

Results of the pathogenicity test showed that the following diseases of banana were found in all the survey sites: Banana leaf streak (Cercospora musae (speg.) H. Sydow & Sydow), Sigatoka (Fusarium oxysporum f. cubense Snyd & Hans (Foc). The banana varieties found to be susceptible to these fungal diseases were latundan, lakatan, cavendish and saba.

Agbulos, Dexter C. 1994. Effectiveness of Insecticide–Sex Pheromone Trap – Metarrhizium Combinations Against Sweet Potato Weevil during Summer Planting in La Union. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

The control effectiveness of different management tactics using sex pheromone trap, metarrhizium, and insecticide against sweet potato weevil during summer planting was conducted at the Agritec Center of the Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University, College of Agriculture and Forestry, Bacnotan, La Union from March to June 30, 1994.

Results revealed that all management tactics were comparably effective in reducing the number of sweet potato weevil on the main vines at harvest, percent damage on storage roots at harvest, percent rating on storage roots at harvest, and mean damage rating of storage roots at harvest. All management tactics were significantly effective in reducing crop loss of 2.33% to 3.75% compared to the untreated plants (57.93%) based on the total yield. This finding suggests that all management tactics were effective in managing sweet potato weevil, thus any of them is recommended. The use of Metarrhizium of pheromone trap either combined or singly can be an alternative to the use of insecticide. Two times spraying of Baythroid insecticide at 30 to 60 days after planting is highly recommended over other spray schedules.

Apalla, Venerando V. 1995. Time of Handweeding on White Potato Grown Under Lowland Culture. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

This study was conducted from December 17, 1994 to March 15, 1995 at the Vegetable Center of Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University, North La Union Campus, Bacnotan, La Union to determine the best time of handweeding of white potato grown under lowland culture. The following treatments were used: T0 – no weeding (Control 1), T1 – Herbicide (Control2), T2– Handweeding (45 DAP), T4 – handweeding (55 DAP), T5 – handweeding (60 DAP) and T6 – handweeding (beyond 60 DAP). The different handweeding resulted to comparable weed control with pre-emergence herbicide application at maturity. However, delayed handweeding beyond 45 DAP, resulted to significant reduction of tuber yield by 27.6 to 41.09% based from control. The critical period of handweeding was found at 30 to 45 DAP to effect tuber yield increase of 56.60% to 77.77% based from the control 1 (no weeding).

Berayon, Belen F. 1982. Persistence of Dinitramine and Pendimethaline in the Soil. MSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad Benguet, Philippines.

The dinitranilien herbicides have shown varied applicability in a variety of horticultural and agronomic crops. Studies particularly those conducted under temperate conditions revealed that dinitramine are quite resistant to soil degradation.

The effect of different soil types, application rates and moisture levels on persistence of dinitramine and pendimethaline were evaluated in pot experiments under greenhouse conditions.

Higher residual phytoxicity from the herbicides was obtained in clay loam soil cover clay and fine sandy loam soils at 50 to 110 days due to their lower soil organic matter content. Herbicides residues were very minimal after three months in all three soils. Dinitramine was lost faster than the pendimethalin at 50 to 80 days after application. However, both herbicides were almost undetectable after three months. With sorghum bioassay, the general ranking of recovered pendimethaline residues were clay loam >clay> fine sandy loam. With gas liquid chromatography the ranking was changed to fine sandy loam>clay. This is because the bioassay measured plant response to the herbicide, hence only amounts in the solution are detected whereas with gas liquid chromatography absorbed herbicide molecules could be extracted and quantitatively measured.

Higher rates of application consequently gave greater and more prolonged residual phytotoxicity and higher residues in all sampling periods than the recommended rate. Applying four times over the normal dose gave reductions of 62% in sorghum growth and 60% in dry matter yield three months after treatment. At twice, the recommended rate was used. Pendimethaline was again more persistent than dinitramine although both were almost undetected at three months at the lowest rate of application.

Loss of dinitramine and pendimethaline under low soil water levels was very slow. Marked residual phytotoxicities were still apparent at 110 days with 4-day interval watering.

Candid, Mariet B. 2001. Growth and Survival of Black Pepper (Piper nigrum Linn.) Cuttings as Affected by Number of Nodes and Position of Planting. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Cuttings of black pepper are commonly prepared and recommended because they ensure uniformity of the stand and assure early bearing.

This study was conducted to determine which of the number of nodes and position of planting black pepper cuttings would produce more sprouts, tallest sprout, average number of adventitious roots, and highest survival, and to determine the interaction effect of the number of nodes of black pepper cuttings planted and position of planting.

One hundred eighty (180) cuttings were taken from healthy and vigorous mother plants. One hundred eighty polyethylene bags (6x8 cm), pruning shears, foot ruler, and record book were used. The study was laid out following the 3 x 2 Factorial in CRD. The different treatments used were: Factor A (Number of Nodes) N1 - 1 node, N2 - 2 nodes, N3 - 3 nodes and Factor B (Position of Planting) P1 - vertical and P2 - slanting. The data gathered were number of days to first sprout emergence, total number of sprout per treatment, average length (cm) of sprout, average number of adventitious roots, and percentage survival (%).

Results of the study revealed that there were no significant differences in the number of nodes, number of days to first sprout emergence, average number of adventitious roots and percentage survival among treatments. Position of planting significantly affect the number of days to first sprout emergence, average length of sprouts, average number of adventitious roots and percentage survival.

The number of nodes and position had no significant interaction effect on the number of days to first sprout emergence, total number of sprout and average length of sprout.

Based on the results of the study, planting of black pepper cuttings with three nodes in either slanting or vertical position is recommended for better growth and survival.

Estalilia, Maricris M. 1996. Performance Test of Promising Mungbean (Vigna radiata L.) Lines/Varieties Under La Union Conditions. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

A study on the performance of 8 mungbean entries was conducted to identify location-specific and high yielding lines/varieties, resistant to pests and diseases with acceptable color, seed size and eating quality under La Union condition, during the dry season. It was conducted at the DMMMSU – Agricultural Technology Center Farm, North La Union Campus, Bacnotan, La Union from November 28, 1995 to February 4, 1996.

The eight mungbean lines/varieties with three check varieties arranged in Randomized Complete Block Design replicated four times were as follows: V1 – EGM – 3995, V2 – EGM 4477, V3 – EGM4488, V4 – IPBM 84 – 56 – 11, V5 – IPBM 85 – 35 – 04, V6 – IPBM 85 – 35 – 18, V7 – IPBM 85 – 45 – 04, V8 – IPBM 85 – 45 – 18,     V9 – BPI – MG – 9 (NC),       V10 – MG –50 – 10A (LC), V11 – PSB –MG1 (RC).

Considering the overall performance of the 8 mungbean entries, IPBM 84 – 56- 11 (471.25 g/plot or 1885 k/ha) and IPBM 85 – 35 – 18 (511 g/plot or 2044 kg/ha) produced higher yield than the local check variety (270.25 g/plot or 1081 kg/ha). Other entries such as EGM – 3995, IPBM 85 – 35 – 04, – IPBM 85 – 45 – 04, IPBM 85 – 45 – 18 with yield range from (330.25 g/plot or 1330 kg/plot – 433.25 g/plot or 1821 kg/ha) were comparable with each other and similar to the check varieties. Likewise, these mungbean entries were highly resistant to diseases such as: powdery mildew, cercospora leaf spot, rust and mosaic. They were also of non-pod shattering characteristics; lodging resistant, with acceptable color (green to light green), small to big size and mashy appearance (mashy) after cooking.

There were no marked differences noted on percent survival, number of cluster per plant, length of pods, number of pods per plant and seed yield per plant.

Gacilos, Alma Ruth G. 1996. Performance Test of Promising Lines/Varieties of Peanut (Arachis hypogea L.) Under La Union Conditions. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

A study on the performance test of seven varieties of peanut such as EGPn 14 – 2, EGPn 12 – 47, IPBPn 87 – 26 – 4, IPBPn 88 – 21 – 24, MMPn 86 – 27 and Tai Acc 14 – 2 and three check varieties, UPLPn 12 (NC), UPLPn 10 (RC) and UPLPn 4 (LC) were tested to determine their yield potential and agronomic characteristics and to evaluate their acceptability under La Union condition during the dry season. It employed the Randomized Complete Block Design replicated three (3) times. It was conducted at the Agricultural Technology Center Farm, Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University, College of Agriculture and Forestry, Bacnotan, La Union from December 11, 1995 to March 28, 1996.

With a total dried bean yield ranging from 490 g/plot or 1225.00 kg/ha to 1210.00 g/plot or 3025.00 kg/ha, MMPn 86 – 27 produced higher yield than the local (UPLPn 4) check variety (1150.00 g/plot or 2875.00 kg/ha). Other line/varieties such as IPBPn 87 – 26 – 4 (983.33 g/plot or 2458.00 kg/ha) and EGPn 12 – 47 (890.00 g/plot or 2225.00 kg/ha) were comparable with each other and similar to national check variety. Likewise, these peanut lines/varieties entries were of high shelling percentage. The seeds ranged from medium to large and normal shape with acceptable color (pinkish). However, all other varieties had similar yield potential with the check varieties in terms of dried shelled bean yield in g/plant (5.92 – 9.760).

Goze, Raul P. 1996. Effect of Nitrogen Fertilizer on the Growth and Yield of Setaria Under Marginal Land of DMMMSU. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

This study was conducted from January 1995 to June 1995 at the Forage Project of the Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University, College of Agriculture and Forestry, Northern La Union Campus, Bacnotan, La Union to determine the effect of varieties on the growth and yield of setaria and to determine the effects of different levels of nitrogen on the growth and yield of pasture grasses (setaria).

Two Factorial RCBD with three replications were used. The different treatments used were: Factor A: Factor B: V1Setaria splendida, L0 – Control, V2Setaria nandi, L1 – 106.67 kg/ha, L2 – 150.00 kg/ha and L3 – 200.00 kg/ha

The results revealed that Setaria splendida 60 (DAP), 105 DAP and 150 DAP was significantly taller than Setaria nandi. The same trend was obtained in herbage yield and dried weight. The analysis of variance revealed highly significant results.

On the number of tillers per square meter, Setaria nandi produced the most number of tillers than Setaria splendida. Analysis of variance revealed significant result.

Plants fertilized with 150 kg/ha 60 DAP and 105 DAP were the tallest and those with zero fertilization were the shortest. Setaria plants fertilized with 150 kg/ha 60 DAP and 150 DAP produced the heaviest and 150 DAP plants fertilized with 200 kg/ha produced the heaviest while zero fertilization had the lightest. In terms of dried weight 60 DAP and 105 DAP, plant fertilized with 150 kg/ha produced the heaviest dried weight while no fertilization had the least. One hundred fifty (150) DAP plants fertilized with 200 kg/ha produced the highest dried weight and no fertilization contributed the lowest.

In terms of number of tillers, plants fertilized with 106.67 kg/ha produced the most number of tillers at 105 DAP and 150 DAP while 60 DAP plants fertilized with 150 kg/ha produced the most number of tillers per square meter. Zero fertilization contributed to the least number of tillers per square meter.

Gumangan, Joseph. 2000. Cultural Management Strategies and Postharvest Handling Practices of Orchid Growers in La Union. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

One of the most profitable hobbies nowadays is home gardening that seemingly include orchid growing. Management strategies, culture and postharvest handling of orchids should be improved to produce a better quality crop.

This study aimed to determine the demographic profile, management, harvesting and postharvest handling strategies, problems encountered in the cultural management and postharvest handling of orchids, and the economic return of orchid growing in La Union.

There were eight respondents taken from different municipalities of La Union. They were personally interviewed with a prepared questionnaire. The data collected were statistically analyzed using descriptive statistics.

Results showed that orchid growers were dominated by women, mostly married and attended college. Orchid growers differed in some of their cultural management strategies and in harvesting and postharvest strategies. Attack of pest and diseases was the most common problem encountered in the cultural management and harvesting of orchids. Orchid growing was found to be a profitable industry as it was a good source of additional income.

Hoque, A.M.G.1988. Growth Yield and Seed Quality of Two Snapbeans (Phaseolus Vulgaris L.) Varieties as Affected by Irrigation Frequency and Fertilizer Materials. PhD Dissertation, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

Present production practices of snap beans frequently lead to the inefficient water use by dry season crops. In many instances, irrigation water is applied without sufficient regard to proper timing and amount of application. There are times when water is applied too late or inadequate. In some cases, water is applied when there is still enough residual moisture in the soil, i.e., the amount applied is beyond the water holding capacity of the soil.

The performance of two snap bean varieties, Alno and Burik, under varying frequencies of irrigation and combination of different fertilizer materials was determined.

Among the irrigation treatments, weekly irrigation effected higher plant height, higher leaf area index, longer pods, higher moisture content of green pods during second harvest, higher number of bigger seeds, heavier weight of 1000 seeds, higher number of dry pods/plot, higher seed yield, better quality of green pods, higher rate of germination from the harvested seeds and more vigorous seedlings from harvested seeds. With weekly irrigation or irrigation at pre-emergence, seedling, flowering and pod development stages significantly higher number of plant stand at harvest, higher percent of normal seedlings, higher number of green pods/plant and higher weight of green pod/plant were observed.

The fertilizer treatments did not significantly affect the green pod yield. However, application of inorganic fertilizer (50-120-50kg N-P2O5-K2O/ha) plus chicken manure at 1ton/ha and supplemental Nutraphos Super K at 3 or 5kg/ha significantly increased plant height and leaf area index, improved visual quality of pods, increased the percentage of normal seedlings and increased the dry seed yield per plot.

Although no significant differences were observed on the two varieties on some growth characteristics, green pod yield and dry seed yield, “burik” had significantly better plant stand, larger seed size, heavier weight of 1000 seeds, and higher germination percentage of test

seeds after harvest.

The best treatment combination for enhancing the highest green pod yield and net benefit cost ratio is with “alno” irrigated at pre-emergence, seedlings, flowering and pod development stages with the application of inorganic fertilizer, chicken manure at 1ton/ha and 5kg/ha Nutraphos Super K.

Higher seed yield and higher profit in seed production were effected by weekly irrigation and application of inorganic fertilizer, chicken manure at 1tons/ha and Nutraphos Super K at 5kg/ha for “alno” and 3kg/ha for “burik”.

Khayad, T.A. and J.C. Perez. 1996. Survey Control of Powdery Scab (Spongospora subterenea) in Potato Growing Areas of the Cordillera. Compilation of Research Abstracts, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

Potato fields in Benguet and Mt. Province, 52.24 has and 49.00 has, respectively, were surveyed in 1991-1993. Benguet had high percentage infection particularly in Calagan, Bugias, Paoay and Englandad in Atok with mean infection raring of powdery scab on tuber surface. Most affected were areas with elevations of 1900-2330 msl. Results further showed that after 4 croppings, powdery scab pustules covering tuber surface was highest on potato planted continuously infected at 90-95 percent; potatoes planted after at 3-5 percent; and potato after non-host crops at 6-10 percent. Further, soil treatment with fungicide significantly control powdery scab compared with tuber dipping and dusting. Among the 30 cultivars/clones tested under field conditions, BW-5 showed highly significant resistance to powdery scab. Clone Yungay, Huaycha, Pacena, Poos-590 and G-5 were resistant under field conditions. Among the different cropping schemes tested, highest return of investment amounting to P168, 340 was obtained in potato planted after 9 months. Monocropping gave negative income of at least P86, 000.

Lizardo, Jacqueline M. 1996. Efficacy of Some Botanical Plants on the Control of Mungbean Weevil (Callosubrochus chinensis Linn). BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

This study was conducted at the Crop Protection Laboratory room, Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University, Bacnotan, La Union from November 1 to December 31, 1995 to determine the best botanical plants as substitute to Sevin insecticide on the control of mungbean weevils at 2 months seed storage.

The study was set up by the use of CRD with three replications. The treatments used were: T0 – no application (control) (T1) – Sevin 85 sp (control 2), (T2) – kakawate leaves, (T3) – lagundi leaves, (T4) – marigold leaves,

 (T5) – neem tree leaves, and (T6) – tobacco leaves. Air-dried botanical plants were applied at 25 grams/500 grams of mungbean seeds placed in big Nescafe glass jars. Sevin was applied at the rate of 1.0 tablespoon/500 grams of mungbean seeds.

Based on the findings of the study, tobacco leaves was the most effective botanical plant to control mungbean weevil at 2 months storage; hence, it could substitute the use of wettable powder insecticide.

Maddul, S. B. 1991. Production Management and Characteristics of Native Pigs in Cordillera. Compilation of Research Abstracts, UPLB, College, Laguna, Philippines

Most pig stocks, consisting mainly of breeding females, were acquired from within the village. Pigs were commonly fed twice daily with boiled sweet potatoes and farm by-products made from local materials. Gilts were usually bred at about one-year old on the first day of estrus by a communal boar at no charge. Sows were allowed to farrow four to five times in their lifetime age, weaning was usually at three to four months, while castration was done between three months and one year-old by elders using bamboo instrument. Health care was minimal, preferring to slaughter a sick pig for home consumption or use of ethno veterinary medicine. Most pigs were marketed live on per head basis. Unavailability of boars at breeding time, low nutritional level, poor standards of management, and lack of support services were perceived problems of respondents. Native pigs were small with straight to low-set back and short legs. They were predominantly black in color, had long snout and small, erect ears. They were alert and nervous in temperament. Mean body measurements for mature pig of both sexes were as follows: 77.52+-9.90 cm; heart girth, 70.15 +- 12.74 cm; and height, 46.52 +- 4.80 cm. body weight was most correlated with heart girth. Simple and multiple linear regressions predicted the most accurate estimates of body weight but simple linear regressions may be preferred in terms of practicality. Native pigs were sexually mature at a mean age of 5.79 months. Average estrus cycle was 19.66 days while estrus lasted for about four days. Mean gestation period was 112.94 days. Litter size at birth average 5.22; mean litter size at weaning was 4.62. Largely influenced by superstition, native pig raising played a vital role on the lives of Cordillerans.

Rodriguez, Jeremias C. 1993. Sweet Potato Production on Lahar Silted Field Applied with Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers. PhD Dissertation, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

Some agricultural crops with the same spp. could also secrete substances which will be detrimental to other plants. Allelophatic compounds are known to inhibit seed germination or produce growth by inhibiting cell division, reducing mineral uptake, increasing or decreasing respiration, and inhibiting protein and hemoglobin synthesis.

The eruption of Mt. Pinatubo has brought severe losses to agricultural crops in Central Luzon particularly the provinces of Tarlac, Pampanga, Zambales and Bataan. Immediate restoration of productivity of the silted farmlands in order to minimize or avert the deleterious effect of the eruption on the country’s agricultural economy is therefore needed. Application of organic fertilizer in combination with inorganic fertilizers may help restore the productivity of these soils.

An experiment was conducted on lahar-silted field in Paniqui, Tarlac from October 1992 to February 1993 to determine the growth and yield, other agronomic characters of sweet potato, the effects of different methods of inorganic fertilizer application and compare the economics of applying organic and inorganic fertilizers. Soil analysis of lahar soil pH of 6.5 is within the optimum size.

Results showed that CFA-compost application did not influence sweet potato. However, the soil pH of 6.5 is within the optimum range. Results showed that CFA-compost application did not influence sweet potato plant survival, root-shoot ratio, total number of roots per plant, number of marketable roots/plant, length of marketable roots, sugar and starch content of roots.

It did improve, however, canopy cover at 25, 50, 75 and 100DAP, leaf area index, crop growth rate, herbage yield, total root yield per plant, average diameter of marketable roots and marketable root yield per plant, per plot and computed yield per hectare.

Except on percentage survival, application of inorganic fertilizer markedly improved all sweet potato growth and yield parameters grown in lahar-silted field.

Sweet potato grown in lahar-silted field appeared to respond better to inorganic fertilizer when applied basally or in split dosage than when side dressed alone. Starch content of roots was also increased by inorganic fertilizer application.

The rate of 10 tons/ha CFA-compost plus 30kg NPK/ha applied in split dosage effected the highest marketable yield which appeared to be appropriate for sweet potatoes grown in lahar/silted field.

Application of 10 t/ha CFA-compost plus 30kg NPK/ha in split dosage is economically advantageous for sweet potato grown in lahar-silted field.

Roxas, J.P. et al. 1996. Improved Cold Tolerant Rice Varieties for the Cordillera. Compilation of Research Abstracts, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

Farmers in the Cordillera (Philippines) grow two distinct types of traditional rice varieties known as Tinawons and Piniduas that mature about eight months after sowing. Seedlings suffer from cold stress and yields are low due to adverse climatic conditions during ripening. Beginning 1991, cold tolerant and early duration elite breeding lines were evaluated in selected areas in the region through National Cooperative Testing (NCT) of the Rice Varietal Improvement Group (RVIG) under the National Seed Industry Council (NSIC). Two lines were found promising and approved for release by NSIC in 1995. They are IR59469-B-B-3-2 named Gohang (PSBRc 44) and IR25976-12-2-2-2-1 named Sumadel (PSBRc 46). Without chemical and fertilizer inputs, Gohang and Sumadel have yield advantage of 25 percent and 60 percent respectively, over local varieties. Gohang is suited to dry season cultivation in some areas of Ifugao and Benguet. Sumadel performs well during wet season in Benguet, Kalinga and Apayao.

 

FORESTRY

SILVICULTURE

Agpaoa, A. C. Effect of Different Plant Litter Leachates on the Growth and Survival of Benguet Pine and Eucalyptus camaldulensis Seedlings. Compilation of Research Abstracts, ERDS, DENR-CAR, Loakan, Baguio City, Philippines

Decomposing mulching materials/litters of alnus, Benguet pine, cogon, sunflower and Eucalyptus camaldulensis were used to assess their detrimental or contagious effect on the growth and survival of potted Benguet pine and Eucalyptus seedlings.

Survival of potted Eucalyptus and Benguet pine seedlings was not significantly affected by the different litter leachates for a period of 100 days.

However, leachates from the different mulching materials have retarding effect on the diameter growth of potted Eucalyptus seedlings. Likewise, the leachates may have contributed to the retardation of growth of Eucalyptus due to the presence of the toxic substances present in the leachates.

It was observed that the different leachates did not significantly affect the growth of Benguet pine seedlings in 100 days.

Calonge, Rosalina. 1985. Response of Outplanted Bitaog (Callophyllum inophyllum) Seedlings to Different Strains of Azolla pinnata. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Azolla as a fertilizer improves the physiochemical as well as the biological nature of the soil. The organic matter content of the soil will be increased and consequently, the nitrogen economy of the soil is improved. It has the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen which it does with the help of the strain of the blue greenish algae, Anabaena azalea, which is associated only with it and lines symbiotically.

The study was conducted to determine the effect of azolla on the growth of bitaog. The Randomized Complete Block Design was used in the layout with the following treatments: T0 – control (no azolla), T1 – 22.5 gm

of Azolla pinnata (Java), T2 – 22.5 gm of Azolla pinnata (Bangkok), T3 – 22.5 gm of Azolla pinnata (Australia), and T4- combination of three strains of Azolla pinnata.

Statistical analysis revealed that there were no significant differences among treatments on the average initial height and diameter of seedlings, height and diameter of seedlings after azolla application.

All the plots which were applied with the combination of the three strains of azolla produced the tallest and largest diameter. This result proved that combination of three strains of Azolla pinnata promoted height as well as lateral growth of Bitaog seedlings.

Calonge, Wilma R. 1983. Effect of Different Diameter Classes on the Survival Percentage of Large Leaf Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) Cuttings. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Rosario, La Union, Philippines

Reproduction of seeds is possibly the most conventional practice in propagating plants. Silviculturists claimed that propagation by cuttings is much preferred to obtain the desirable characteristics of important trees.

This study was conducted to determine the effect of different diameter classes on the survival of mahogany cuttings. The experiment was laid out using Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with 4 treatments. The treatments used were: T1- 2.6 to 3.0, T2- 3.1 to 3.5cm, T3- 3.6 to 4.0 cm and T4- 4.1 to 4.5 cm.

Results of the study revealed significant differences among treatment means on the average length of shoots produced 90 days after planting.

However, no significant differences existed on the average number of days from planting to shoots emergence, and average length of shoots, and percentage survival of cuttings 90 days after planting.

All the different diameter classes used in the study are recommended.

Cariaso, Jovelyn M. 2003. Early Growth and Survival of Ipil (Intsia bijuga Colebr O. Ktze.) Wildlings as Affected by Potting Containers and Soil Media. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

The importance of wildlings in reforestation and plantation establishment is sometimes overlooked by seedling producers, tree improvers and forestry nursery operators. Wildlings are seedlings growing naturally under the forest canopy of the wilderness. In the absence of nursery-raised planting stocks, wildlings could be used as a planting material provided that they are properly taken care of and managed scientifically.

This study was conducted to determine the effect of potting containers and soil media on the growth and survival of Ipil wildlings.

Two hundred sixteen Ipil wildlings were used in the study and were laid out using 3 x 4 Factorial in Randomized Complete Block Design with 12 treatment combinations replicated three times. The following were the different treatments used: Factor A (Potting Containers) C1 – polyethylene bags, C2 – bamboo tubes, and C3 – tin cans; and Factor B (Soil Media) S1 – forest soil, S2 – garden soil, S3 – forest soil + river sand, and S4 – garden soil + river sand.

The study revealed that there was a highly significant effect of potting containers on the average height of 30, 60, and 90 Days After Transplanting (DAT), average diameter at 90 DAT and average height increment at 30 DAT. Furthermore, a significant effect of potting containers on the diameter increment at 60 DAT was also observed. Results revealed that there was no significant effect of soil media on all the parameters. However, Ipil wildlings planted in bamboo tubes with a soil media of forest soil, those planted in mixed garden soil, and river sand obtained a 100% survival. Highly significant result was observed on the effect of the interaction between potting containers and soil media specifically on the average diameter of Ipil seedlings 30 days after transplanting. However, significant result was observed on the diameter increment of Ipil seedlings at 60 DAT.

Based on the results of the study, potting containers significantly affected the diameter increment of Ipil wildlings 60 DAT and the height increment 30 DAT. Soil media had no significant effect on all parameters.

Castillo, Evangeline T. 1981. The Effects of Some Transpiration-Reducing Compounds on the Water Relations, Growth and Survival of Kaatoan bangkal (Anthocephalus chinensis, Lamk. Rich. Ex. Walp) and Yemane (Gmelina arborea, Roxb.) Seedlings. MSc Thesis, UPLB College of Forestry, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines

One of the dominant factors which account for the mortality of outplanted seedlings is transpiration. Outplanted seedlings experience “shock effect” brought about by continued and excessive transpiration while absorption by the root lagged behind.

The water relation responses of Kaatoan bangkal and Yemane seedlings over a period of 72 hours were studied under two varying conditions effecting plant stress, first is normal atmospheric stress and second, the combined effects of atmospheric stress and second, the combined effects of

atmospheric and root stress. The possibility of alleviating plant water stress under these conditions was further explored by observing the water relations, growth and survival of kaatoan bangkal and yemane under three types of anti-transpirants: abscisic acid, phenylmercuric acetate and silicone under 10-4M, 10-5 M and 10-6 M concentrations.

Under conditions of unlimited water supply but high atmospheric stress, Kaatoan bangkal and yemane initially transpired at their evapo-transpiration potential rate. Transpiration rate eventually declined significantly through time

as a result of the decrease in stomatal aperture and the physical effects on evaporation by the constant irradiance applied. A corresponding low internal diffusion resistance prevented leaf temperature increase. Prolonged atmospheric stress caused stomatal aperture and transpiration reductions which resulted to wilting of leaves by the 72nd hour. Water balance was, however, maintained.

Water stress increased leaf water deficits in the order of -2,-4,-6 bars, respectively. Stomatal aperture and transpiration reduction may have increased the plant’s abscisic acid levels reducing significantly photosynthesis, harmfully affecting the plant’s water balance. Both species experienced leaf abscission, its occurrence noted in -2 bars at 72nd hour, -4 bars at 24th hour and -6 bars at the 4th hour.

Antitranspirant applications to water stressed kaatoan bangkal rendered short-term improvements in leaf water content by delaying leaf abscission. Among the antitranspirants, PMA 10-4 M was highest in effecting transpiration reductions in kaatoan bangkal.

The addition of ABA leaf sprays caused disruptions in endogenous levels of plant. hormone within the plants, PMA directly inhibited photosynthesis through CO2 uptake disruption while silicone coating reduced CO2 permeability to the stomata.

Water relations of yemane are insignificantly affected by the antitranspirant type and levels but significantly affected by water stress applied and time. At this point, the use of ABA, PMA and silicone antitranspirants to yemane and kaatoan bangkal is not advisable due to their detrimental effects on photosynthesis, leaf temperature and plant water balance.

Costales, A.B. and E.F. Costales Jr. 1990. Floral Biology of Petroleum Nut (Pittosporum resineferum Hemsl) Trees. Compilation of Research Abstracts, ERDS, DENR-CAR, Loakan, Baguio City, Philippines

Slight variations in the dates of floral initiation, peak of flower flushed, duration of floral development and sizes of petroleum nut flowers in terms of length and width of flower buds were observed in different experimental sites.

Flowering started during the months of January until April or early days of May. Pollen dehiscence occurred 2 to 3 days after flower flushed and petals shed off 4 to 6 days after flower openings. Variation also existed in terms of fruit initiation and dates of fruit maturation or ripening.

However, no significant variations in size of fruits were detected in all exposures in all study sites. Fruits in all study sites were fully ripened during the months of November and December.

Correlation analysis of the floral and fruit development versus temperature revealed a relatively high correlation valued between floral development and temperature. The values ranged from 0.56 to 0.66 (length) and 0.52 to 0.63 (width).

Costales, A. B. and F. M. Allan. 1989. Effect of Biozome (S-200) Soil Conditioner and the Growth and Development of Four Reforestation Species in Benguet. Compilation of Research Abstracts, ERDS, DENR-CAR, Loakan, Baguio City, Philippines    

Biozome is an organic fertilizer that tends to stabilize and ameliorates the physical and chemical properties of problem soil.

Biozome (S-200) soil conditioner and urea fertilizer were tried on four reforestation species to determine their effects on the growth and survival of seedlings.

The soil conditioner had no significant effect on the survival and root/shoot ratio of Benguet pine (Pinus kesiya), Alnus (Alnus maritime), Bottle brush (Callistemon citrinus) and Bagras (Eucalyptus deglupta). However, there was a significant increase in

the height growth of Alnus when treated with 50 g urea dissolved in 10 liters water applied 3 times at every month interval, and when applied 1 gm biozome mixed with 50 gm urea dissolved in water, also applied 3 months at every month interval. Bagras seedlings also responded significantly in terms of height growth fertilized with a mixture of 1 gm Biozome + 50 gm urea, and 50 gm pure urea. Benguet pine seedlings did not respond favorably while bottle brush seedlings which were either fertilized or not fertilized did not show any significant variations on the growth. Seedlings treated with pure Biozome at 25 gm rate significantly caused a difference in height growth with other fertilized bottle brush seedlings under the present fertility status of the soil in the nursery.

Dacanay, A.A., E. F. Costales, Jr. and H. S. Bato. 1994. Occurrence of Pests and Diseases After Forest Fire in Benguet Pine Stands. Compilation of Research Abstracts, ERDS, DENR-CAR, Loakan, Baguio City, Philippines

Two observation sites were established for monitoring and observation on the occurrence of pests and diseases after forest fire. Result showed that Benguet pine stands razed by ground fire at Camp John Hay were not infested with Ips calligraphus. Three species of insects were collected such as tussock moth (Lepidoptera: Liperidae) bagworm, (Lepidoptera: Physchidae) and shoot moth (Dioryctria rubella.) However, no population outbreak was observed from the occurrence of fire.

In Liang, Itogon, Benguet, 9 out of the 27 trees monitored were infested by Ips calligraphus; 44% of trees under 31-60 cm diameter class; 33% of the 10-20 cm diameter class, and 22% of 21-30 cm diameter class. Most of the infested and dead trees have a crown scorched of 81-100%. Further observation showed that Benguet pine trees with larger diameter were more susceptible to insect attack than the smaller diameter.

Dela Cruz, Reynaldo E. 1984. Phenology of Selected Industrial Forest Plantation Species. C, UPLB-PCARRD, Laguna, Philippines

Diameter growth of selected fast-growing tree species (Kaatoan bangkal, Yemane, moluccan sau, red gum, bagras, gubas and ipil-ipil) as affected by climatic factors (rainfall, evaporation, relative humidity, radiation, sunshine duration and air temperature) in three sites (Laguna, Nueva Viscaya and Abra) were studied.

Phenological phenomena (flower bud formation, flowering, fruiting, formation of matured fruits, seed dispersal, shedding of leaves, flushing and bark shedding) for each species as they relate to climatic conditions were also observed. Lastly, annual magnitude and cycle of growth for each species were studied.

Results, interpretation and implications of observations are presented. Whenever possible; results of this study are presented in terms of their application to management of these species in tree plantation.

Dosono, Saturnino D. 1983. Response of Kupang (Parkia roxborghii G. Don) Seedling as Affected by Different Leguminous Root Nodules. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

The application of leguminous root nodules to the soil media will increase the nitrogen content of the soil needed for the growth and development of legume plants and improving fertility. It is advisable to apply root nodules to the seed before planting in areas where kupang had not been grown previously.

The study aimed to find out the effect of different leguminous root nodules to kupang seedlings. The different root nodules that were grouped according to treatments were: T1- ipil-ipil, T2 – winged-bean, T3 – peanut, and T4- colopognium.

The data were tabulated and analyzed following the ANOVA of the Randomized Complete Block Design. Comparison among treatment means was done using the Duncan’s Multiple Range Test.

Results revealed no significant differences among treatment means on the following: average height of the seedlings 30, 60 and 90 days after sowing, average height increment of the seedlings from 30 to 60 days and from 60 to 90 days after sowing and percentage survival of seedlings 90 days after sowing.    

The number of nodules per plant at 90 days after sowing indicated highly significant differences among treatment means. Winged bean root nodules gained the best growth performance among the treatments.

It is concluded that the different root nodules did not affect the germination as well as growth of Kupang. However, the average number of nodules per plant 90 days after sowing revealed significant differences among treatments. Root nodules promoted nodulation of Kupang seedlings.

Ducusin, Beinvenido P. Jr. 2002. Morphological Study on the Nodulation of Some Leguminous Forest Tree Species in DMMMSU-NLUC Forest Reservation. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

A nodulated legume supplements the use of expensive nitrogen fertilizers which would initial large quantities when applied solely in forest plantation.

The main objective of the study was to determine the nodulation among the leguminous forest trees at DMMMSU forest reservation.

Degree of nodulation, nodule attachment within the root system, nodule shape and color, nodule size, nodule texture and nodule number were observed and gathered on the 6 species collected. The species belong to family Mimosaceae, Fabaceae and Caesalpiniaceae. The procedures used were adapted from the Nitrogen Fixation and Tropical Legume and the Microbiological Resource Center. No-parametric statistics was used in the presentation and analysis of data.

Results revealed that Japanese acacia and rain tree registered the highest percent of nodulation while calliandra species was the lowest. Japanese acacia, rain tree and prickly narra were moderately nodulated while those species with sparse nodulation were giant Ipil-ipil, calliandra and kakawate, Rain tree had the highest average number of nodules. Astrogaloid was observed on giant Ipil-ipil, Japanese acacia, raintree and calliandra. Prickly narra was characterized as desmodiod while kakawate was observed as mucunoid. Color of nodules examined under the three families was brown. Giant Ipil-ipil and prickly narra have rough texture, Japanese acacia, calliandra and kakawate were rough and warty and the raintree had the texture of rough and warty with streaks. Rain tree had the biggest size of nodules and the highest average number of nodules.

Based on the results, only the species belonging to Mimosaceae and Fabaceae were found to be nodulated while species under Caesalpiniaceae did not have any nodule at all.

Guillen, Anita S. 1982. Effect of Thinning on Some Wood Quality Indicators of Benguet Pine (Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon) Wood. Compilation of Research Abstracts, UPLB College of Forestry, Laguna, Philippines

The effects of different degrees of thinning on some wood quality indicators (namely, specific gravity, fiber length, ring width and latewood percentage) of Benguet pine (Pine kesiya Royle ex Gordon) wood were evaluated.

The core samples for this study were collected from a 30-year old, second-growth Benguet pine stand inside the Timber Project of Benguet Consolidated, Inc. in Bobok, Bokod, Benguet, which was subjected to different intensities of thinning, namely: (a) heavy thinning (or 70% removal of the basal area), (b) moderate thinning (or 50% removal of the basal area), (c) light thinning ( or 30% removal of the basal area); and control (or no thinning).

Fifteen (15) trees were sampled for the different levels of thinning and two core samples were extracted from each for wood quality evaluation. The data were analyzed using the analysis of covariance in a Completely Randomized Design, with age of the sample tree as the covariate.

Results of this study showed that thinning improved the specific gravity, ring width measurements and latewood percentage of the wood examined but the effect on the fiber length was insignificant. The effects of a silvicultural treatment (like thinning) should be evaluated within the first three to five years after the application of the treatment.

Langbis, John T. 1997. Analysis of Fire Occurrence Over the Last Five Years in Reforestation Projects of the DENR-CAR, CY 1991-1995. MSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

Fire per se is one of the deadly serious enemies of our forest plantations. In the forestry context, fire is being used to eliminate undesirable plant species, and new forage in pasture areas. However, these innumerable and indispensable uses of fire are equivalent to its destructive rules in human life.

The study aimed to know the extent and frequency of fire occurrences and fire management program in the reforestation projects of the DENR-CAR Region.

Largest reforestation area burned was found in CENRO Tabuk with 1,000.5 hectares or 21.55% of the total area burned in CAR. Areas burned in other CENROs range from 31.2 to 955 hectares or .67% to 20.525%. The smallest areas burned were found in Community Environment and Natural Resources Office (CENRO) Buguias. CENRO Luna had no record of fire occurrence. In terms of frequency of fire occurrence, CENRO Baguio had the highest with 36 or 22.93% of the total fire incidence in CAR, followed in descending frequency by the other CENROs ranging from 23 to three or 14.65% to 1.91%. CENRO Pinukpuk had the least fire incidence.

Extent of areas burned in the lowland was wider per fire incidence while burned areas under PENRO Benguet and CENRO Sabangan appeared smaller or are in patches. Fire season generally occurred form March to May. However, in PENROs Benguet and Abra and CENRO Sabanagan fire season started in January. In other CENROs, burning lasted up to July.

Reforestation burning is mostly caused by carelessness, unknown causes and incendiarism. Started only in 1993 to 1995, fire management program/strategies stated in the Regional Master Plan for Forestry Development have not institutionalized or incorporated for implementation. Budget allocations are meant for maintenance and operating expenses only and no funds were allotted for hiring and training/organizing of new forest fighting/suppression crews.

Recommendations included intensifying of fire management activities, providing manpower and financial support, increasing costs for plantation maintenance and protection, strictly enforcing of forest laws, involving every segment of the society specially the local government units and the community selecting appropriate site for reforestation areas, species to be planted and silvicultural treatments to be adopted and intensification of IEC particularly in fire prevention.

Leones, Meiji M. 1995. Correlation Analysis on the Factors that Affect the Yield of Calamansi Trees (Citrus madurensis). BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines        

The effects of variables associated to the fruiting potential of calamansi trees have not yet been evaluated. These may include “indigenous” factors such as basal diameter, crown diameter, stem diameter and tree height and “exogenous” factors like soil pH.

The study aimed to determine the relationship of different factors affecting the yield of calamansi. Values of six variables including the yield of trees, tree crown diameter, stem diameter, branch diameter, tree height and soil pH were measured from 500 calamansi trees and were subjected to correlation analysis.

Results showed that tree crown diameter was positively associated to stem diameter with correlation coefficient of 0.8549. Trees with bigger stem diameter had bigger crown diameter. On the other hand, tree crown diameter was inversely related to the branch diameter of the correlation coefficient being 0.28823. Trees with bigger crown diameter had smaller branch diameter.

With regards to stem diameter and soil pH, their association was positively at 0.33396. Calamansi trees with bigger stem diameter had higher soil pH in the soil around their base. Result of the study revealed that none of the different variables affects the yield of the calamansi trees.

Malatag, Alfredo G. & Antonio U. Castillo. 1981. A Test on the Suitability of Selected Fast Growing Tree Species on Degraded Sites. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Fast growing tree species such as ipil-ipil, yemane, Mollucan sau and bagras are very capable for faster reforestation establishment and thicker vegetative cover for degraded land areas.

The different treatments used were as follows: Ta- mollucan sau (Albizia falcataria), Tb- Giant ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala), Tc – Bagras (Eucalyptus deglupta), and Td – Yemane (Gmelina arborea).

Results revealed that treatment B (giant ipil-ipil) obtained the highest growth increment with a mean of 88.05cm and the lowest was obtained by treatment D – (yemane) with a mean of 29.83cm. Analysis of variance showed highly significant results among treatments.

The percentage survival of the outplanted seedlings was found to be 100 percent and giant ipil-ipil is highly recommended for reforestation species on degraded areas.

Munio, Rodelia C. 2002. Lateral Root Development and Seedling Performance of Prickly Narra (Pterocarpus vidalianus, Rolfe). BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Seedling performance in the field depends on its growth potential coupled with the degree to which conditions on its planting area for growth potential to be adopted. The association to which planting stocks are conditioned to the environment in the field will have the final influences on their performance after planting.

A study was conducted to look into lateral root development as an expression of seedling quality of prickly narra. A phenotypically superior mother tree was selected from three breeding populations of the species in DMMMSU-NLUC forest reserve. Seed collected from each individual tree were bulked to constitute three open-pollinated families.

The study was laid out following the Randomized Complete Block Design with four replications. Frequency distribution of lateral roots was also determined based on all seedling counts wherein five root classes based on the natural groupings were formed. Analysis of variance was used to analyze the treatments and were compared using the Duncan’s Multiple Range Test, Seedling quality indices were also determined.

Results indicate that lateral root morphology may define superiority of the root system for the production of quality root seedlings of prickly narra.    The significant association of the number of lateral roots with other seedling morphological attributes and the positive relationship obtained on the lateral root classes and the said traits make sound biological bases for assessing seedling quality of the species.

Ngales, L.P. and A.V.B. Lopez.1980. Hydrologic Response of Benguet Pine Forest with Different Stocking Levels. Compilation of Research Abstracts, PMSD, ERDB, DENR-CAR, Loakan, Baguio City, Philippines

A second growth Benguet pine stand in Bobok, Bokod, Benguet was thinned to different stocking levels to find out their effects on surface runoff and sediment yield. The study showed that regardless of stocking levels and as long as there is a continuous canopy cover provided by the understorey vegetation and litterfall, stocking levels did not significantly affect surface runoff and sedimentation.

The average annual surface runoff over a five-year period ranged from 7.03 mm to 9.83 mm per hectare in a stand with stocking levels from 0 to 2,500 trees per hectare. The magnitude of sediment loss was negligible, amounting only to 0.0722 ton to 0.1489 ton per hectare per year.

The study indicated that the present system of harvesting the Benguet pine forest through the seed tree method where 18 to 20 trees per hectare are left can have a sound ecological basis in terms of surface runoff and sediment yield as long as there is always a complete canopy and understorey vegetative cover to protect the soil from being eroded.

Orallo, C.A. 1982. Vegetational Changes in Natural Benguet Pine Forest After Seed Tree Method of Logging. Compilation of Research Abstracts, ERDB-DENR, Laguna, Philippines

Observation on the sequence of plant communities and species convergence occurring in a Benguet pine logged-over was conducted.

Based on the five-year vegetation data, it was noted that no distinct changes as to type of species occurred within the areas but changes was more in terms of cover value dominance. Five year s after logging, the area was dominated by grass vegetation, notably Imperata cylindrica, the most dominant, followed by Themeda triandra and Themeda caudate. Under the herb species found in competition, in the dominance ranking, were Ageratina adenophora and Elephanthopus mollis, recorded 4th and 5th, respectively. Benguet pine, on the other hand, as the dominant vegetation prior to logging registered only about 0.46 percent out of the total cover.

In terms of composition, very few species were observed to grow and reoccur through time but their duration of convergence and identification was not determined. Some shrub vegetations such as Melostroma species, wild strawberry were found regularly in lower slopes.

Palaypayon, William R. and A. Bravo. 1984. Underground Root-Pruning of Some Reforestation Species. Compilation of Research Abstracts, FORI, PCARRD, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines

Reforestation species were studied to determine the effects of hardening period, pruning and age of seedlings at pruning time on root-shoot ratio, percent survival, height and diameter increment.

Results showed that hardening period, pruning and age of seeding significantly increased root-shoot ratio of Benguet pine but not alnus and bagras. Effects of these variables

on percent survival of Benguet pine seemed to be observed by very poor survival due to moisture stress. Field survival of alnus was also very poor, while bagras registered a complete failure probably due to moisture stress.

Effects of hardening period, pruning and age of seedling on percent survival, height and diameter increment of mahogany and acacia indicated a generally favorable response but both species had decrease in height six months after planting because of die-back.

Ronquillo, R.S. 1990. Planting of Coffee Under a Second Growth Benguet Pine Stand. Compilation of Research Abstracts, ERDS, DENR-CAR, Loakan Road, Baguio City, Philippines

The 1-ha project was established in two separate sites but a total of 1,078 coffee seedlings were outplanted in these sites. At the end of the 2-12 year period, the survival was 92% and the mean total height and diameter growths were 56 cm and 0.9 cm, respectively.

Coffee grown under the pines, as observed did not perform well in terms of growth and appearance. These results could be attributed to the unfavorable effect of the soil because generally, soils in the forest land dominated by pine trees are acidic in nature. Supplemental applications of soil ammendment materials were done but effect was minimal or insignificant.

Drought or water stress had also been a factor in depriving good growth of plants.

Rovillos, Roland S. 2002. Effect of Stump Height on the Coppicing of Yemane (Gmelina arborea Roxb.). BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

This study was conducted to determine the effect of the stump height on the coppicing of yemane especially in terms of number of sprout produced, height of the coppice, diameter of the coppice, number of days from cutting to sprouting, height of dominant coppice, diameter of dominant coppice and number of

dominant coppice and to determine the best stump height that would induce the best growth of Yemane. The different treatments used were: 6 inches above the ground, 12 inches above the ground and 18 inches

above the ground. This was laid out following the Randomized Complete Block Design with three treatments replicated three times.

Results showed that stump cut 12 inches above the ground were the earliest to develop sprouts, the most number of sprouts in weekly basis for eight consecutive weeks and obtained the largest diameter of coppice for two months.

It is recommended that the stump height should be 12 inches above the ground to obtain faster coppicing of yemane.

Sampaga, Mario B. 1996. Above and Below Ground Profiling of Selected Multipurpose Tree Species. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Agroforestry productivity is based on the interaction of trees, crops and even animals on a given land area. Their existence creates a complex mix of process such as the competition for light, water, nutrients and space.

This study was conducted to generate data information on canopy structures and root growth pattern of selected multipurpose tree species. Ten selected multipurpose tree species were profiled, namely: narra (Pterocarpus indicus), mangium (Acacia magium), auri (Acacia auriculiformis), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus deglupta), kakawate (Gliricidia sepium), antsoan dilaw (Cassia spectabilis), ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala), yemane (Gmelina arborea), tamarind (Tamarindus indica), and neem (Azadirachta indica).

Results of the study revealed that the tallest among the tree species was eucalyptus and the shortest was antsoan. Yemane had the widest in diameter at breast height and the narrowest was kakawate.

In terms of crown length, eucalyptus had the longest and antsoan had the shortest. Ipil-ipil had the highest and kakawate had the lowest crown height. In crown diameter and crown cover, narra had the largest and eucalyptus, the smallest. Antsoan had the largest trunk taper and eucalyptus had the lowest.

Mangium had the longest root and the shortest was yemane. Eucalyptus had the most number of lateral roots while yemane and neem had the least. Mangium had the longest lateral roots and ipil-ipil had the shortest. Kakawate had the longest tap root and tamarind had the largest diameter of tap root. Yemane had the most lateral roots, and Acacia had the least.

On the index of shallow rootedness, eucalyptus had the highest and kakawate had the lowest. Eucalyptus had the highest root density and ipil-ipil had the lowest. Yemane recorded the deepest lateral root and kakawate recorded the deepest tap root.

The researcher recommends kakawate and Ipil-ipil as hedgerows in the alley cropping system and as a pure stand in the Taungya Farming System to augment the soil fertility because they are nitrogen-fixing tree species.

Torres, D.S. and A.C. Ramos Jr. 1994. Plant Diversity Study of Mt. Makiling Mossy Forest Zone. Compilation of Research Abstracts, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

This study aimed to determine the plant diversity level, an important segment of conservation of Mt. Makiling mossy forest zone. The mossy forest zone was represented by two – 20 diameter circular plots which were used for plant inventory and collection of plant specimens from the plant inventory, estimated 20 bryophyte species (count was only based from ocular and microscopic inspection of moss specimens) and 85 vascular plant species were noted. Bryophyte and vascular plant species present within each plot was compared using the similarity index (SI). It was found that around 57.14 percent of the noted plant species existed in both plots. Such percentage may indicate low diversity levels among bryophytes. However, this is not very conclusive since only the SI was used as its basis. The Shannon-Weiner diversity Index was not applied to the bryophytes since number of bryophyte individuals was hard to take note of. Despite the high SI value obtained for the vascular plants, the species were still proven to be quite highly diverse as indicated by the Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index. Also, among the vascular plants, computation of the relative density of each species revealed that Selaginella and S. Jagorii are the dominant species in the two plots.

Valdez, Romeo S. 1962. Development of Hagakhak (Dipterocarpus warburgii Brandis) in Plantation of Mt. Makiling with Emphasis on Crown Development during the Period 1952-1961. Compilation of Research Abstracts, UPLB, College, Laguna, Philippines

The main objective of this study on hagakhak (Dipterocarpus warburgii Brandis) was to determine the relationship of crown diameter and depth to tree height. It is a phase of an intensive study of some tree in our plantations in Mt. Makiling. The result of which may be used

as guides in aerial timber cruising, an aspect which maybe carried on to augment the slow ground survey method of inventory in our country. The trend is that ground plots will serve only a check to estimates through aerial photographs.

This paper covered chiefly the crown development in nine years (1952-1961) and its relation to diameter and height increment.

The study was conducted in the dipterocarp plantation at the foot of Mt. Makiling and approximately 250 meters from the College of Forestry Building.

Crown width was measured to the nearest tenth of a meter with the use of a standard chain and crown depth was obtained by subtracting clear length from total height.

The study found out that the development of crown spread tends to increase in rate with the increase in diameter and total height. For every 5 centimeter, there is a corresponding average increase of 0.52 meter in crown diameter.

 

GERMINATION

Agpaoa, Alfredo C. 1980. Direct Seeding of Phosphorus and Rhizobium-coated Ipil-ipil/Leucaena Leucocephala (Lam) de Wit/ Seeds on Philippine Grasslands: Effects of Grass Height, Density and Lodging on Seedling Growth and Survival. MSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

 

Phosphorus and rhizobium-coated seeds serves as protection and inoculant to the planting materials. Lodging, height and distribution strongly alter the survival and growth of plants.

Three experiments were conducted to find out the effect of seed treatments on germination, seedling survival, height, growth, and biomass ratio of ipil-ipil seedlings. After seed germination was completed, grasses around the germinated

seedlings were thinned to different densities, lodged and cut to different heights to find out its effect on the survival, growth, biomass and root/shoot biomass ratio of the seedlings.

In all three experiments, phosphorus coating was found to have significantly decreased percent germination of the seeds while Rhizobium inoculation of the seeds markedly increased

height and biomass of seedlings six months after germination.

Lodging grasses once a month and every 2 months for 5 months did not affect height growth and biomass production of local ipil-ipil seedlings but it retarded height growth and increased biomass of K-8 ipil-ipil seedlings. Lodging did not increase biomass of K-28 ipil-ipil seedlings but it retarded growth.

Cutting grasses retarded height growth of K-8, K-28 and local ipil-ipil seedlings and increased biomass of K-8 and K-28 ipil-ipil seedlings but not local ipil-ipil seedlings.

Root/shoot biomass ratio of seedlings of all the ipil-ipil cultivars six months after germination was increased by cutting as well as by lodging the grasses.

Higher survival of seedlings was attained in the plots where grasses were not cut than in the plots with cut grasses.

Agpaoa, A. C. Germination Characteristics of Newly Collected and One-Year Old Stored Seeds of Eucalyptus camaldulensis. Compilation of Research Abstracts, ERDS, DENR-CAR, Loakan, Baguio City, Philippines

The mean pre-germination period of both the newly collected, and one-year old stored seeds was 6 days. The mean germination energy period was 9.3 days and 10 days for newly collected and one-year old seeds, respectively. The mean germination period for one-year stored seeds was 19.3 days and for the newly collected seeds, 14 days. Analysis of variance of the mean pre-germination period, germination period, and germination energy period showed no significant variations.

The mean germinative capacity and mean germinative energy of the newly collected seeds and one-year stored seeds significantly varied. For newly collected seeds, the germinative capacity was 10.0% while the germinative energy was 7.65% in 9.3 days. The germinative capacity of the one-year stored seeds was 62.33 with germinative energy of 35% in 10 days.

Agpaoa, A. C. and M. L. Boliquen. 1994. Germination of Mahogany Seed as Influenced by Storage Materials and Temperature. Compilation of Research Abstracts, ERDS, DENR-CAR, Baguio City, Philippines

Results of the study showed the pre-germination period of stored seed under room temperature for 2 months was shortened by 11 days and 20 days respectively, while the germination percent was increased by 40%.

Although the pre-germination period, germination period and germination percent of seeds kept in plastic, bottle and cloth bag stored in room temperature were not statistically analyzed, the differences were not significant. This means that mahogany seeds can either be kept in plastic bag, cloth bag or bottle provided room temperature, but storing the seeds in refrigerator for a month or more is detrimental to the seeds.

Alupay, Joseph R. 1995. Germination of Dao (Dracontomelon dao (Blanco) Merr. Et. Rolfe) Using Different Pre-Germination Treatments, BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Hard-coated seeds are usually given special treatments to induce rapid germination. Various pre-germination treatments are being practiced and these have been found to be very effective to hasten germination.

The study was conducted to determine the best pre-germination treatments for dao.

The Completely Randomized Design with four treatments replicated four times was used in the study. The treatments used in the study were: T0 – Control, T1 – nicking, T2 – hot and cold water, and T3 – sulfuric acid. The seeds were planted 2cm deep in the seedbed just after pre-treatment with 2cm spacing between each seeds and 8cm between rows. There were 15 seeds planted per plot.

Results of the study showed that seeds soaked in sulfuric acid were earliest to germinate, and had the highest percent germination, highest germination, and highest germination energy. Seed treatment with sulfuric acid, hot and cold water and nicking produced the highest mean daily germination, and highest germination value. All the germinated seeds from the four treatments had 100% survival. Analysis of variance on all data gathered revealed no significant differences among treatments used.

Based on the results of the study, seeds immersed in sulfuric acid were found to be the best in terms of germination period and germination percentage hence, these are recommended.

Asumio, Jefferson G. 2003. Pre-Germination Treatments of Alibangbang (Piliostigma malabaricum Roxb.) Seeds. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Production of large quantity of planting stock for reforestation purposes is one of the common problems encountered in the nursery.

Alibangbang seed still has a problem on how to accelerate the production of this species because of its hard coat that prevents rapid germination of seeds of early stage. Thus, various pre-germination treatments are employed.

This study was conducted to determine the best pre-germination treatments for alibangbang.

The soil medium composition used was 3:1:1 ratio of topsoil, river sand, and a mixture of carbon manure and forest litter.

The soil was sterilized in a galvanized iron with a temperature of 850C in order to kill the destructive microorganisms. The study was laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design with four treatments replicated three times. The pre-germination treatments used were: T0 – Control, T1 – denatured alcohol (soaked within 13 hours), T2 – Tap water treatment (soaked within 12 hours), T3 – alternate hot and cold water (soaked within 20 seconds in hot and 30 seconds in cold water twice), and T4 – sulfuric acid treatment (soaked within 1 minute).

The findings of the research revealed that the seeds soaked in hot and cold water enhanced earliest germination and seeds soaked in denatured alcohol for 3 minutes resulted to the highest mean daily germination, percent germination, germination peak value and germination energy.

All parameters revealed significant differences among treatments used.

Ayeo, Rowena B. 2002. Germination of Prickly Narra (Pterocarpus vidalianus Rolfe) Using Pre-Sowing Treatments. DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Narra is a premium wood species which has been subjected to over-exploitation as manipulated by its rareness, the fact that it is rarely found in the forest. The seed is difficult to germinate in natural conditions.

This study was conducted to determine the best pre-sowing treatments for prickly narra. The study used the Completely Randomized Design with four treatments replicated three times. The treatments used were the following: T0 – Control, T1 – tap water (24 hours soaking), T2 – boiling water for 3 seconds, and T3 – soak in hot water (800C) for 10 minutes.

The result of the study showed that the earliest to germinate were the seeds soaked in boiling water for 3 seconds and the last to germinate were the seeds with no pre-sowing treatment.

The researcher recommends that the seeds soaked in boiling water for 3 seconds should be used as the pre-sowing treatment of prickly narra.

Biag, Esmeralda G. 1984. Germination of Maber (Macadamia integrifolia) as Affected by Different Soil Media Under La Union Condition. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Rosario, La Union, Philippines

Since maber is introduced in the locality, there is a need to test the suitable soil media for its successful germination. However, other silvicultural practice as raising sound planting stocks is as equally important as fertilization. In the determination of soil mixture suitable for the growth of maber trees, nurserymen and researchers would be guided as to its large- scale propagation.

The study aimed to determine the percentage germination of maber as affected by different soil media. The treatments used were: T1- sand, T2 –ordinary garden soil, T3 -1:1 ratio of sand and ordinary garden soil; T4 – 1:1 ratio of garden sol and decomposed saw-dust: T5 -1:1 sand and decomposed sawdust; and T6 – 1:1 of sand, ordinary garden soil. The study was laid out using Complete Randomized Design, replicated four times.

Results of the study revealed that there was significant result on the average height of seedlings 30 days after sowing and 60 days after sowing, average diameter of seedlings 60 days and 90 days after sowing and on the average monthly height increment of seedlings after sowing.

However, findings indicated no significant difference on the average number of days from sowing to germination, average diameter of seedling 30 days after sowing, average monthly diameter increment of seedling 90 days after sowing, and on the percentage survival of seedlings 90 days after sowing.

Cachero, Leopoldo. 1984. The Effects of Different Seed Treatment on the Germination of Dao (Dracontomelon dao) Seeds. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan La Union, Philippines

Due to the importance of this tree species, it is therefore imperative to conduct a study on seed treatment application. Hence, one problem on the production of this species is its hard coated seed structure. Seed treatment application contributes some advantages regardless of effectivity.

Randomized Complete Block Design with four treatments was used in the study ( soaking in tap water, soaking in hot water, nicking, and sulfuric acid ). It aimed to determine which seed treatment would give the highest percentage germination of dao seeds.

Results showed that soaking dao seeds in tap water resulted to the highest percentage germination and greatest germinative capacity while soaking to hot water resulted to the longest germination period. On the other hand, seeds soaked in sulfuric acid solution failed to germinate. The study yielded highly significant result.

Based on the result of the study, soaking in tap water is the most effective treatment when it comes to the germination of dao.

Costales, A.B. and F.M. Allan. 1991. Pre-germination Treatments of Gmelina arborea Seedlings. Compilation of Research Abstracts, ERDS, DENR-CAR, Loakan, Baguio City, Philippines

Pre-germination treatment is one of the basic cultural operations in the nursery. This study assessed the quality of the planting materials needed to produce quality seedlings at the right time required.

To enhance germination of yemane (Gmelina arborea) seeds, these were treated as follows: (T1) seeds eaten by the cow collected from the animal dung; (T2) seeds eaten by cows and scarified by rubbing with sand paper; (T3) seeds scarified by rubbing with sand paper; and (T4) control seeds not scarified nor eaten by cows.

Results showed that germination period in T2 were only 48 days, T1 with 52 days, T3 with 53 days and T4 with 60 days from sowing. In terms of percent germination, T2 had the highest with 48.65%, T1 with 38.33%, T3 with 21.67% and T4 with 3.33%, respectively.

From these findings, it appears that seeds eaten by cows and scarified using sand paper germinated better than the other pre-treated and control seeds. Yemane seeds need scarification in order to improve germination performance.

Dacpano, Preciosa C. 1989. Pre-Germination Treatments and Early Growth Response of Acacia mangium (Willd.) Using Different Potting Media, MSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

Pre-germination is one technique in the nursery to assess the growth of seeds germinated. Potting media likewise hasten and ultimately influence the early growth of planting stocks.

Seeds of Acacia mangium germinate poorly unless the impervious seed coat is treated so that the endosperm and embryo can take up water. The different methods of seed treatments affect the germination and growth of the species. In determining the best method of hastening seed germination and the soil mixture suitable for the growth of acacia mangium trees, nurserymen and researchers would be encouraged to generate technology for its possible large scale propagation, hence, the study was conducted.

The study was conducted to determine the best method of hastening germination for Acacia mangium and the effect of different potting media on its growth and survival of Acacia mangium. Treatments for Phase I experiment used in hastening germination were: tap water treatment (T1), hot and cold water treatment (T2) and acid treatment (T3). Phase II treatments were: forest top soil (T1), forest top soil + sand (T2), sand + compost soil (T3), forest top soil + sand + compost soil (T4).

Results in Phase I revealed highly significant difference in the average number of days from soaking to start of germination, mean daily germination, germination percent, germination value, germinative energy and germinative peak value with 100% survival of germinated seeds.

In Phase II, highly significant results were noted on the height of seedlings at 45 and 60 days after sowing, diameter of seedlings at 60 days after sowing, and on dry root-shoot ratio of the seedlings. Significant result was obtained from the diameter of seedlings 45 days after sowing. No significant result was found from the number of days from sowing to germination, mean daily germination, germination percent, germinative peak value, germinative value, germinative energy, height and diameter of seedlings at 15 and 30 days after sowing, and on the percentage survival of seedlings at the termination of the study.

Based on the results, it is recommended that seeds of Acacia mangium should be soaked in hot and cold water before propagation in the nursery. Sand and compost at a similar ratio should be used as potting medium in propagating seedlings in the nursery.

Daowan, Jane D. 2002. Germination of Giant Ipil-ipil (Var. K- 636) As Affected by Pre-sowing Treatment. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

The seeds of many woods like giant ipil-ipil require special pre-treatment before satisfactory germination can be obtained and at the same time the germination is uniform.

This study was conducted to determine the percentage of germination of ipil-ipil seeds and to determine the germinative energy, germinative peak value, and percentage survival of the germination stock. The study was laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design with four treatments replicated four times. The following treatments were used: T0- control (no pre- sowing treatment), T1- boiling water (3 min. soaking), T2 – tap water (24 hrs. soaking) and T3- hot and tap water (30 min. soaking).

The result of the study showed that the earliest to germinate were the seeds soaked in tap water for 24 hrs while seed subjected to boiling water took the longest days to germinate.

On the other parameters, seeds soaked in hot water combined with tap water had the highest mean daily germination and germination peak value.

The seeds soaked in boiling water gained the best performance in terms of germination percentage, germination energy and percentage survival.

Fajardo, Jaime M. 2001. Germination of Bitaog (Calophyllum inophyllum Linn.) Seeds Using Different Pre-Germination Treatments. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

In view of the economic value and importance of bitaog tree, it is necessary to plant more of its kind but problems on how to accelerate the propagation arises due to its hard-coated seeds. Thus, it is necessary to apply seed treatment to assure relatively prompt and uniform seed germination.

The study was conducted to determine the best pre-germination treatment for bitaog seeds. Completely Randomized Design with four replications was used. The treatments used were: T0 – control (no pre-treatment); T1 – nicking/cracking; T2 – hot and cold water; T3 – sulfuric acid; and T4 – scarification.

The results of the study showed that seeds subjected to nicking or cracking and scarification treatments recorded the earliest to germinate, highest mean daily and percentage germination, highest peak and germination value, highest germination energy and highest rate of survival.

Bitaog seeds treated with hot and cold water and sulfuric acid had zero survival.

Fang, Carlito. 1984. The Effects of Seed Treatments on the Germination of Ipil (Intsia bijuga) Seeds. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

The seed of ipil is that with a hard thin shell making it hard to germinate; thus, disintegration of the seed cover is needed so that seeds germinate readily and uniformly. One way of achieving this is through the application of seed treatments.

The study was conducted to determine which seed treatment would give the highest percentage germination of ipil. Randomized Complete Block Design was used in the lay-out using three treatments, namely: T1- control (no treatment), T2- scarification, and T3- nicking.

Scarification gave the highest percentage germination and the highest germinative capacity while seeds with no treatment resulted to the lowest percentage germination and germinative capacity.

Analysis of Variance on percentage germination and germinative capacity revealed highly significant differences while in germination period, there were no significant differences among treatments used.

Based on the results of the study, scarification and nicking are recommended as pre-treatment for the germination of ipil.

Faustino, Reynaldo R. 1988. The Effects of Different Pre–Treatments on the Germination of Acacia (Acacia auriculiformis) Seeds. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

The success of any reforestation program is the mass production of good quality of planting stock in the nursery at the earliest possible time. Due to the hard seed coat of Acacia auriculiformis seeds which delays its germination, pre–treating the seeds is necessary.

The study was conducted to determine which among the four treatments would hasten the germination of Acacia auriculiformis seeds.

The soil was sterilized by cooking for three hours and pulverized into fine particles. The soil media used had a composition of 3 parts topsoil and one part river sand. The seeds were sown on 1.0 m x 1.5 m concrete seedbed and laid out using the Complete Randomized Design. Each treatment was replicated four times totaling to 16 plots, each with a dimension of 30m x 21cm. The following treatments were used: T1 – Control (no pre–treatment), T2 – Boiling water, T3 – Soaking in Tapwater, T4 – Hot and Cold water.

Results revealed that seeds soaked in boiling water gave the highest germination capacity and highest germinative energy. Analysis of variance revealed significant differences among treatment means. Seeds pretreated with boiling water and hot and cold water achieved the shortest germinative period, hence it is recommended.

Maala, Gregorio V. Jr. 1991. Germination of Acacia (Acacia auriculiformis A. Conn. Ex.) as Affected by Different Sources of Potting Media. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

The success of establishing plants also depends upon the condition, vigor and survival of the seedlings grown as affected by the kind of soil media used. Hence this study aimed to determine the effects of different sources of potting media on the germination of Acacia auriculiformis.

Completely Randomized Design was used in the study with five treatments replicated three times. The following treatments were used: T1, soil from mulberry plantation; T2, soil from teak plantation; T3, soil from bamboo plantation; T4, soil from mixed forest stand; and T5, ordinary garden soil.

Results of the study showed that seeds sown in T4 were the earliest to germinate while seeds in T5 were the last. However, ANOVA revealed insignificant result. In terms of percentage germination, germination value, and germination energy, Analysis of Variance revealed highly significant result among treatments used. Significant results also registered on mean daily germination, germination peak value and germination survival.

Based on the results of the study, acacia seeds sown in soil gathered from bamboo plantation produced the highest germination percentage, germinative value, germination energy, and germination peak value. The lowest was produced by seeds sown in ordinary garden soil.

However, seeds sown in ordinary garden soil and soil from teak plantation obtained the highest percentage survival.

Mones, Alfonso A. 2002. Germination of Agoho (Casuarina equisetifolia Forst.) as Affected by Pre-Sowing Treatments. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

New plants are produced through sexual propagation. Sometimes, low percentage of germination may be encountered and this is sometimes due to strong seed dormancy, low seed moisture and hard seed coat.

Seed dormancy may be dejected or seed germination maybe hastened by employing pre-sowing treatments.

This study was conducted to determine which among the pre-germination treatments would give the highest germination percentage, shortest number of days from sowing to germination and the highest percentage survival.

There were 240 seeds used. The seedbed was prepared by mixing the soil media with two parts top soil and one part river sand. The soil was pulverized and sterilized in order to free the soil from pathogenic micro organisms.

The soil was placed in a concrete seedbed, leveled and watered after sowing. The experimental area was laid out in Completely Randomized Design with four treatments replicated three times. The treatments were: T0 -control (no pre-sowing treatment), T1 - hot and cold water, T2 - tap water (24 hrs soaking), and T3 - denatured alcohol.

Results of the study showed that control had the longest number of days from sowing to germination and the highest survival percentage one month after sowing. Seeds soaked in hot and cold water and denatured alcohol resulted to zero germination percentage. Analysis of Variance revealed significant differences on the number of days from sowing to germination and percentage survival. No significant difference was noted on germination percentage.

Ordoňo, Marvin A. 2001.Germination and Survival of Large Leaf Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King.) as Affected by Depth and Position of Sowing. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

It is proper to determine the correct depth and position of sowing to have the best result and faster germination of the seeds of large leaf mahogany. Appropriate depth of sowing and correct position of seeds will result to better germination percentage thus, minimizing laborious activities in sowing seeds.

The main objective of the study was to determine the effects of depth and position of sowing large leaf mahogany.

Randomized Complete Block Design was employed in nine treatments, namely: T1 – flat in 2cm, T2 – downward in 2cm, T3 – upward in 2cm, T4 – flat in 4cm and T5 – downward in 4cm, T6 –upward in 4cm, T7 – flat in 6cm, T8 – downward in 6cm and T9 – upward in 6cm.

Results showed that there were significant effects of depth and position of sowing in the germination of leaf mahogany. Seeds in flat in T1 were the earliest to germinate, and had the highest mean daily germination, highest germination energy and most number of seedling survived.

Based on the result of the study, shallower seeds in sowing are recommended in large leaf mahogany at flat position.

Paguyo, Benedict C. 2000. Pre-germination Treatments of Smooth Narra (Pterocarpus indicus) Seeds. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Pre-germination of some seeds can be applied especially to some hard-coated seeds to hasten germination. This study was conducted to determine the best pre-germination treatment for smooth narra. The data gathered were: number of days from sowing to germination, mean daily germination, germination percent, germination peak value, germination energy, and percent survival. The study was laid out using the RCBD with five treatments, namely: control, tapwater, sulfuric acid, alternate hot and cold water, muriatic acid and denatured alcohol, replicated three times.

Results revealed that the seed soaked in sulfuric acid was the first to germinate. The seeds soaked in tap water for 12 hours had the best performance in terms of mean daily germination, percent germination, and germination peak value. The seeds treated with muriatic acid exhibited the highest germination energy and percent survival.

Based on the results, tap water is recommended for faster germination of narra seeds.

Penafiel, S. 1981. Growth of Benguet Pine in Areas Over-seed with Nitrogen Fixing Species. Compilation of Research Abstracts, FORI-PCARRD, UPLB College, Laguna, Philippines

One-year-old Benguet pine seedlings were planted in plots over-seeded with four forage legumes, namely: Centrosema pubescens, Desmodium intortum, Stylosanthes guianensis and Macroptilium atropurpureum. All forage legumes (considered as treatments) were over-seeded in replicated experimental plot at a rate of 3 kg/ha in open grassland dominated by cogon and themeda.

Three-year growth and survival data on Benguet pine seedlings show that there are no significant differences among seedlings grown under each forage legume sward. The best height (434.51 cm) and diameter (3.22 cm) growths were obtained under the Desmodium plots and survival was highest under the control plots (57.82%). For nitrogen content of Benguet pine needle tissues, variance analysis also showed no significant differences. The better growth values under Desmodium could be due to N contributions of Desmodium as the tissue samples collected from the sample pine seedlings had again the highest value with 1.89%.

Based on dry matter yield, the estimated nitrogen contributions of the legume are: Desmodium intortum – 113.31 kg/ha, Centrosema pubescens – 147 kg/ha, Macroptilium atropurpureum – 115.41 kg/ha, and 101.22 kg/ha for Stylosanthes guianensi.

Peralta, Teodoro O. 1988. The Effect of Different Seed Treatments on the Germination of Mangium (Acacia mangium). BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

The government is accelerating its research development efforts on reforestation by planting fast-growing tree species. One fast- growing tree species introduced is the acacia. However, there is still a problem on how to accelerate the propagation of this tree species because of its hard-coated seed.

It is, therefore imperative to conduct this study to determine which of the different seed treatments would be the best to hasten the germination of Acacia mangium.

Laying out of the area was done following the Complete Randomized Design, with three replications. The different treatments used were: T1 - Control; T2 - nicking; T3 - coldwater treatment; T4 - hot and cold water treatment. Seeds in T1 were not treated, T2 were subjected to nicking, cutting partially the tip of

the seeds at 0.5 mm thick and 1 mm wide. In T3, the seeds were soaked for 24 hours in cold water. Those in T4 were poured in hot water at 900C and 30 seconds the hot water was poured off and seeds were next soaked in cold water for overnight. The seeds were sown in the seedbeds after

pre-treatment.

Results showed that nicking the seeds resulted to highest percentage germination and highest germinative energy. Analysis of Variance revealed highly significant differences on germination energy and germinative capacity and significant differences on germinative period.

Based on the findings, nicking and hot and cold water treatments are recommended for the germination of Acacia mangium.

Untalan, Paquito P. 1994. Pre-germination Treatment and Early Growth Response of Calliandra (Calliandra calothyrsus Meissn.) to Mycovam I Inoculation and Nitrogen Fertilization. MSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

Pre-germination is one of the operations in the nursery to hasten the germination of seeds.

Effects of various pre-germination treatments, namely: top water, hot and cold, and physical scarification on pre-germination period, mean daily germination, germination percent, germination peak value, germinative value, germinative energy and percent germination on Calliandra seeds were evaluated.

Pre-germination treatments had no significant effect on the pre-germination period but it had a highly significant (P<0.01) effect on mean daily germination, germination percent, germinative peak value, germinative value and germinative energy.

The pre-germination treatment for Calliandra was done by soaking them in hot water, at initial temperature of 800 C for 1 minute then soaking them in cold water for 24 hours before sowing.

Effects of mycorrhizal inoculation and 4 levels of nitrogen fertilizer (0.6 gram, 0.9 gram and 1.2 grams per seedling) on height growth, stem growth, root: shoot ratio and vigor of Calliandra were evaluated.

Mycorrhizal inoculation did not have any significant effect on the root: shoot ration and survival but a highly significant effect was observed on height and stem diameter growth.

Villaroza, Mercedes O. 1984. The Effect of Different Temperatures and Length of Soaking on the Germination of Kayugalu (Sindula inermis Merr). BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

This study was conducted to determine which of the different temperatures would give the highest percentage germination and to determine which temperature (00C, 600C, 900C and 1200C) and length (0 minutes, 5 minutes, 10 minutes and 15 minutes) of soaking would result to the highest germinative capacity of the kayugalu seeds. The different treatments used were arranged using the Split Plot Technique of Randomized Complete Block Design with four blocks. The data gathered were: number of seeds germinated and percentage of germination.

Findings revealed that seeds soaked at 600C resulted to the highest number of seed germination and percentage germination with a mean of 18.69 and 61.28, respectively while seeds soaked at 1200C had the lowest number of seeds germinated and percentage germination with a mean of 11.88 and 15.69, respectively. Analysis of variance showed highly significant differences among all parameters taken.

Those soaked in 10 minutes had the greatest number of seeds germination with a mean of 4.08 and 17.32, respectively while the lowest were those soaked at 0 minutes with respective means of 3.10 and 3.01. Highly significant differences were shown in the analysis of variance.

Seeds soaked at 600C in 10 minutes gave the highest number of seeds germinated (7.30) while the lowest were those seeds soaked at 600C in 0 minutes, 900C in 0 minutes and 1200C in 5 minutes, 10 minutes and 15 minutes with the same mean of 0.71.

Based on the results, soaking seeds in water at 600C in 10 minutes gave the highest mean number of seeds germinated and percentage germination.

 

FORESTRY PROPAGATION

Agpaoa, A. C. 1980. Drought Resistance of Alnus (Alnus maritime) and Yemane (Gmelina arborea) Seedlings. Compilation of Research Abstracts, ERDS, DENR-CAR, Loakan, Baguio City, Philippines

The drought resistance and survival of Alnus and Yemane seedlings planted in the field during the dry season was determined. Potted seedlings of Yemane and Alnus were planted and watered everyday for 28 days. After that, watering was never done and survival and soil moisture in the root zone of the dead and drying seedlings were monitored.

After 34 days without watering, 90% survival of Yemane seedlings was noted which was significantly higher than the 70% survival of Alnus seedlings. The soil moisture content noted in the root zone of Yemane seedlings was 5.58% as to 5.95% soil moisture content noted in the root zone of Alnus seedlings.

Andres, Perpetua D. 1982. The Effects of Different Soil Media on the Growth and Rooting Development of Hanga( Pittoporumresineferum Hemls.) Cuttings. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

This study was conducted at the Forestry Experimental Nursery of DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union to determine the effects of different soil media: pure garden soil, mixture of garden soil and sand, mixture of garden soil and humus, mixture of garden soil humus and sand, and mixture of humus and sand on the growth and rooting development of hanga cuttings. Randomized Complete Block Design was used in the lay-out.

Hanga cuttings were planted two to three inches deep. Before potting, soil treatment was done by exposing the soil media for one week.

Results showed that the propagation of hanga cuttings on five soil media under DMMMSU, Bacnotan condition is not successful. This might be due to the elevation, atmospheric humidity, soil, temperature and other site factors which are not conductive to the propagation of this tree species. It might also be due to the nature of the plant family where the Hanga tree belongs.

Baroña, Romeo V. 1995. Survival of Tibig (Ficus nota Merr.) as Affected by Different Concentrations of ANAA and Duration of Soaking. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

The inadequacy of water supply both potable and irrigation purposes suggests that trees capable of holding water in long periods are necessary for the rehabilitation of denuded watershed areas. One of them is tibig.

This study was conducted to determine the effect of different concentrations of ANAA and duration of soaking tibig species in terms of its growth and survival.

The treatments used were: factor A (different concentrations of ANAA) under this were A0 – control (tap water) , A1 - 25 ml of ANAA/ liter of water, A2 - 50 ml of ANAA/liter of water, A3 - 75 ml of ANAA/liter of water, A4 – 100 ml of ANAA/liter of water, A5 - 125 ml of ANAA/liter of water and under factor B (duration of soaking) were B1 – 5 minutes , B2 - 12 hrs. , B3 – 24 hrs and B4 - 36 hrs. The study was arranged following the 5 x 3 factorial in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD – Factorial).

The results of the study showed that tibig cuttings soaked in 25 ml of ANAA/liter of water were significantly different from those soaked in other concentrations in all the parameters gathered. On the other hand, tibig cuttings soaked for 12 hours were significantly different from other cuttings in all the duration of soaking in all the parameters gathered.

In terms of interaction effects, those tibig cuttings soaked in 25 ml of ANAA/liter of water for 12 hours significantly produced the best result in all the parameters taken.

Based on the result of the study, soaking tibig cuttings in 25 ml of ANAA/liter of water for 12 hrs is recommended in propagating tibig cuttings.

Benter, Renato P. 1983. Performance of Outplanted Cashew Using (Anacardium occidentale) Different Methods of Planting Area Preparation. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Land preparation for plant growth has more important effects, like easy penetration of roots and easy development and recovery of the plant.

The study aimed to determine the effects of planting area preparation on the height and diameter of cashew plants. The study was laid-out using the Randomized Complete Block Design. The treatments used were: T1 – without clearing, T2 – spot clearing, and T3 - complete clearing.

The height and diameter of cashew plants six months after planting were not significantly affected by the different methods of planting area preparation. However, complete clearing resulted to the highest monthly increment and biggest diameter increment of cashew.

The final height and diameter of cashew plants under spot clearing resulted to the tallest plants and biggest diameter of cashew, while without clearing resulted to the shortest plants. Survival rate was high (100%) in all treatments.

Based on the results of the study, no clearing is recommended for economic purpose. However, spot clearing is most preferred as shown by numerical difference in terms of diameter and growth monthly increment.

Bersamin, J. B. and E. F. Costales, Jr. Effects of Types of Planting Stocks on Survival and Growth of Benguet Pine. Compilation of Research Abstracts, ERDS, DENR-CAR, Loakan, Baguio City, Philippines

Planting stock is widely known to greatly influence the survival of seedlings. It contributes invariably on the early growth parameters of plants.

The planting stocks used were potted, bare-root and mud-puddled seedlings. Potted seedlings had the highest mean percent survival of 53.67%, followed by mud-puddled seedlings with 40.63% and bare-root had the least survival with 36.75%.

In terms of the mean height growth increment, bare-root seedling had the highest with 25.06 cm, followed by mud-puddled seedlings with 24.61 cm. Surprisingly, the potted seedlings manifested the lowest mean height of 23.37 cm, although no significant variation among the different planting stocks was observed.

The results indicate that the different types of planting stocks revealed no significant variation both in survival and height growth of the Benguet pine seedlings.

In the case of exposure, no significant changes were observed on the survival of the seedlings. However, seedlings outplanted in the North, South and West exposures were significantly taller than the East exposure. These findings indicate that Benguet pine seedlings potted, mud-puddled or bare-root can be planted in North, South and West Exposure.

Cariño, Jessie. 1980. Prop Roots and Adventitious Roots Formation of Bakawan Lalaki (Rhizophora apiculata Blume) Sapling from Different Provenance. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Bakauan lalaki is one of the most commonly used reforestation species for the rehabilitation of mangrove and swamps forest today. Initial investigative study revealed the possibility that prop root growth for Rhizophoraceae family is under heavy genetic control. Thus, manipulation of genes in controlling prop root growth can enhance the quality of sapling.

The study generally sought to test the suitability of using prop root growth development as a means of assessing the quality of bakauan lalaki sapling. A phenotypically superior mother tree was selected from three sources – Darigayos, Paraoir and Tabok.

The study was laid out using Completely Randomized Design with four replications. Twenty seedlings from each family were planted at the end of fish cages. Parameters taken were the number of adventitious and prop root formation; length; diameter; number and height of sapling and functional leaves; and number of branches for four measuring period. Crown basal area and survival percentage was taken only during the last measuring period.

Results of the study revealed no significant differences on the monthly number of adventitious roots and prop roots formed, length of prop roots, diameter and height of saplings, number of functional leaves, number of branches, crown basal area and survival percentage of bakauan saplings.

Collado, Ricardo S. 1996. Performance of Kapok (Ceiba pentandra L. Gaerta) Stem Cuttings as Affected by Different Lengths and Diameter Classes. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

In view of the economic value and importance of kapok in country today, there is a need to search for methods in propagation. One of the practical ways of propagation is the use of stem cuttings. In stem cuttings, it is important to consider performance in terms of the length and diameter of stem to use because these have significant roles on the growth and development of sprouts of the cuttings.

This study was conducted to determine which of the three diameter classes and length of kapok cuttings can give the best growth and survival. The study was laid-out following the 3 x 4 factorial experiments in RCBD with three replications. There were 180 cuttings of kapok used. The following treatments were used: Factor A (diameter classes) A1 – 2.1 cm – 3.0 cm, A2 – 3.1cm – 4.0 cm, and T3 – 4.1cm – 5.0 cm; Factor B (length of cuttings) B1 – 30 cm, B2 – 50 cm, B3 – 70 cm and B4 – 100 cm.

Based from the findings of the study, the diameter classes used were comparable with each other on the number of sprouts per plant, average length of roots per plant and percentage survival. The cuttings 70 cm and 100 cm long were significantly higher over the 30 cm and 50 cm long in terms of the number of sprouts produced, number of days to first sprout emergence and the percentage survival. On the length of major roots, all the length of cuttings used had no significant differences. There was a significant interaction between the diameter classes and the length of cuttings on the number of sprouts at 84 days after planting. All other interactions were not significant.

Coloma, Elenita D. 1983. Comparative Study of Outplanted Seedlings and Direct Seeding on the Growth and Survival of Giant Ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala). BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Massive production of ipil-ipil is needed because of its multiple uses, which include reforestation, fuel wood and fodder; so its growth and survival is of great importance.

The study was conducted to determine the growth and survival of transplanted and direct seeded giant ipil-ipil. The treatments were distributed at random following the Complete Randomized Design with the following treatments: T1- direct seeded, and T2- transplanted seedlings.

The results of the study revealed that transplanted seedlings grew faster than the direct seeded although the analysis of variance was not significant.

Based on the results of the study, transplanted ipil-ipil seedlings performed better than direct seeded; therefore, ipil-ipil seedlings can be raised in the nursery before they are transplanted.

Costales, Adelaida B. 1983. Variations in Some Growth Characteristics, Specific Gravity and Tracheid Length of Benguet Pine (Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon) Provenances Grown in Benguet. Compilation of Research Abstracts, UPLB College of Forestry, Laguna, Philippines

Variations in growth and some wood characteristics of eight Benguet pine (Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon) provenances grown in Benguet were investigated. This provenance experimental study was established earlier in Binga, Itogon, Benguet in 1970. Data presented were gathered in November 1982 when the stand was 12 years old.

Significant differences among provenance in height, diameter, number of branch whorls, number of branches per whorl and tracheid length were observed. Provenance 109 (San Nicolas, Pangasinan) performed best in the area with regards to growth pattern, growth rate and in specific gravity while SC 111 (Kabayan, Benguet) exhibited poor growth performance and lowest specific gravity.

These results imply that seeds collected from Kabayan, Benguet were slightly lower in genetic superiority compared to other provenances included in the study. Correlation analyses between character traits indicated strong association between height and diameter growths in all the provenances. There was moderate to inverse relationship between number of branch whorls and internodal length. Very low correlation coefficients between specific gravity and tracheid length were obtained among the eight provenances. On diameter and specific gravity relationship, SC 110 (Kayapa, Nueva Vizcaya) exhibited direct relationship between these traits. SC 112 (Mt. Data, Mt. Province) also showed direct relationship between height and tracheid length.

Dalmacio, Harold U. 1996. Growth and Survival of Anos Shizostachyum Lima (Blanco) Merr.” As Affected by Different Methods of Propagation. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

This study aimed to determine which among the three asexual parts of anos cuttings would give the best result in terms of growth, diameter increment and survival of anos. This study was conducted at the Bamboo Production Walk-in Training Center, Bacnotan, La Union from September 18 to November 18, 1995.

Two hundred seventy cuttings of anos were propagated in the study. These were laid out following The Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications. The following treatments were used: Treatment 1 – Stump Cuttings, Treatment 2 – Culm Cuttings and Treatment 3 – Branch Cuttings.

Results revealed no significant effect on the monthly height increment, monthly diameter increment, height and diameter after 60 days and in the survival percentage 60 days after planting. However, stump cuttings had the highest monthly height increment of 13.73 cm, monthly diameter increment of 0.67 mm, height after 60 days 20.37 and the highest diameter after 60 days in the culm cuttings.

Significant result was obtained on the number of roots produced 60 days after planting with stump cuttings having the most number of roots (9.75). Highly significant result was obtained on the number of sprouts emerged 60 days with stump cuttings having the most number of sprouts (3.23).

Based on the results of the study, stump cuttings are recommended in the propagation of anos.

Dolor, Armando A. 1984. Effects of Different Soil Media on the Growth and Development of Rain Tree (Samanea saman) Seedlings. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

The woodcarving industry principally depends much on this rain tree species. Since this is

one of the slow- growing species, genetic manipulation is a necessity for its growth and survival.

The study aimed to determine the effects of different soil media on the growth and development of rain tree seedlings. The experimental design used was the Randomized Complete Block Design with four treatments, such as: Ta- top forest soil, Tb- ordinary garden soil, Tc- top forest soil and river sand and Td- ordinary garden soil and river sand.

Results of the study showed that seedlings grown in ordinary garden soil and river sand had the biggest monthly diameter increment and the greatest final height increment. All the treatments used registered a 100% survival.

The analyses of variance on all the parameters taken showed insignificant result.

Rain tree seedlings can therefore be grown in any of the soil media used in the study.

Dolor, Perlita C. Performance of Alibangbang (Pileostigma malabaricum Benth) Cuttings for Different Amount of Alpha Naphthalene Acetic Acid. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

One effective way of hastening propagation of cutting is through the use of root inducing hormones. These hormones will enhance root initiation and development. Some studies showed that root hormone when applied to cuttings accelerate normal metabolism and increase the root primodia. ANAA had proven effective in the vegetative propagation of various species. It is a chemical already proven by previous studies as a measure in promoting and hastening root growth of cuttings.

This study aimed to determine the effects of different amounts of ANAA on the growth of Alibangbang cuttings. The treatments used in the study were: T0 – control (no application) T1 – cutting dipped for eight (8) hours in 10.5 ml. of ANAA + 1.5 li of H2O, T2 – cutting dipped for six (6) hrs in 21.0ml of ANAA + 1.5 li. of H2O, T3 – cutting dipped for six (6) hrs. in 31.5 ml. of ANAA + 1.5 li. of H2O. The treated cuttings were uniform in diameter and length and planted in plastic bags. Four treatments with 5 replications were used and laid out using the Randomized Complete Block Design.

Based on the results of the study, the different treatments did not significantly affect the average number of days from planting to shoot emergence, average number of shoots produced for cutting 30, 60 and 90 days after planting, average length of shoots for cutting 30, 60 and 90 days after planting, and average length increment from 30, 60 and 90 days after planting.

However, a significant difference was observed on the average length of shoots 30, 60 and 90 days after planting.

Cuttings should be dipped for six (6) hours in 31.5 ml of ANAA + 1.5 li. of H2O.

Escusa, Jonathan Patrick S. 1998. Vegetation Propagation of Hedges Bamboo as Affected by Planting Media and Density of Planting. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Bamboo arrests soil erosion, stabilizes riverbanks, improves the environment and thrives on a wide range of soils. Bamboo is a suitable reforestation species that can provide both environmental protection to watershed areas and livelihood in upland communities.

This study was conducted to determine which potting media and density of planting are best for the growth and survival of hedges bamboo. It also determined the treatment that would give the greatest number of root developed and highest percentage survival.

One thousand two hundred stumps of hedges bamboo were propagated in this study, arranged following the Split Plot Technique in RCBD with three replications. The treatments used were the following: Main Plot – A1 - garden soil, A2 – rice hull, A3 – saw dust and A4 – mixture of garden soil, rice hull and saw dust; and Sub Plot – B0 – 1 stump, B1 – 2 stumps, B2 – 3 stumps and B3 – 4 stumps.

The study revealed no significant differences in all the parameters taken on the effects of potting media and the interaction effects of potting media and density of planting hedges bamboo.

Significant differences were observed on the effect of density of planting in terms of the length of sprouts while highly significant differences were observed on the number of sprouts produced, length of sprouts and percentage survival.

Based on the results of the study, any of the potting media used planted with four stumps of hedges bamboo is recommended.

Espero, Adrian B. 2003. Non-Mist Macropropagation Technique for Molave (Vitex parviflora Juss)as Affected by ANAA Superthrive, and Hormex. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Planting stock for most reforestations is still produced from seeds despite problems associated with the quality of planting materials; germination rates of some trees aggregate such problems. These limitations constitute a good reason to explore the potential for true-to-type mass cloning using macro propagation techniques.

This study was conducted to determine which of the three rooting hormones (ANAA, Superthrive, and Hormex) is suitable for the propagation of molave using tip cuttings.

The shoot tips of molave trees were collected with at least three nodes from the side branches of the newly established molave plantation (four months from planting). Cuttings were protected from desiccation. The end tip of the cuttings were treated with fungicide (5% Ditane) for 5 seconds to prevent the attack of fungi, then the end-tip were dipped to garden soil, and sandy soil with medium texture, pH of 6.8, low in nitrogen medium in potassium and sufficient in phosphorus. The experimental treatments used in the study

were: T0 – Control, T1 – ANAA (full concentration, dipped for one minute), T2 – Superthrive (1.0% concentration, dipped for 1 minute) and T3 - Hormex (full concentration, dipped for 1 minute). The experimental area was laid out using Completely Randomized Design with four replications.

Results of the study revealed no significant differences in the percentage survival (after one and two months of gathering), root biomass (over dry weight), and number of shoots from first to third week including six weeks. Similarly, there was no significant difference on the length of shoots and diameter two months after set up. However, there were highly significant differences at five, seven and eight weeks after set up on the number of shoots and length of longest roots and significant at height increment.

Molave shoot tip cuttings can be used for vegetative propagation. Although the survival is low, based on the study, molave shoot tip can be induced to produce root with or without the application of rooting hormone.

Gacilos, Emily G. 1999. Vegetative Propagation of Buddha Bamboo (Bambusa tuldoides Munro Syn L. Ventricosa Mc Lure) as Affected by Duration of Soaking in ANAA. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

One of the bamboo species used with several potential uses is the Buddha bamboo which is found to be growing singly. It is due to these potentials that mass production of these species is demanded.

This study was conducted to determine which of the three asexual parts will produce the most number of sprouts, tallest sprouts and highest survival and to determine the best duration of soaking in ANAA. The study also determined the best interaction effects of the asexual parts and duration of soaking in ANAA.

Three hundred sixty selected cuttings of Buddha bamboo were propagated in the study. The study was laid out following the 4 x 3 factorial in Randomized Complete Block design with three replications. The treatments used were: A- duration of soaking – A0 – control, A1 – 10 minutes, A2 – 20 minutes, A3 – 30 minutes and B – asexual propagation – B1 – culm cuttings, B2 – branch cuttings, B3 – split culm cuttings.

Results showed no significant differences on the average number of days to first sprout emergence, number of diameter of sprouts at 15 and 45 days after planting, height of sprouts at 15 and 45 days after planting and percentage survival of Buddha bamboo as affected by duration of soaking in ANAA. Highly significant results were revealed on the average number of days to first root emergence and a significant result occurred on the average height of sprouts 30 days after planting.

In terms of the different asexual parts, results revealed no significant differences on the average height of sprouts 30 days after planting and highly significant results were observed in all the treatments used in the study.

On the other hand, the interaction effects between the duration of soaking in ANAA and asexual parts revealed highly significant results on the average number of days to first root emergence and average height of sprouts at 45 days after planting. Significant result was observed on the percentage survival of Buddha bamboo. Insignificant differences were obtained on all the other parameters used in the study.

Based from the results of the study, the researcher recommends that culm or split cutting of Buddha bamboo soaked or no soaking in ANAA be used in the propagation of Buddha bamboo.

Garcia, Jocelyn M. 2002. Effect of Root Pruning and Root Hormone Application on the Growth and Quality of Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla Rings) Wildlings. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

To improve the growth quality and survival of mahogany wildlings, root pruning becomes necessary. Root pruning prevents the growth of a long tap root and induces the formation of many lateral roots.

This study was conducted to determine which of the three concentrations of ANAA and length of root pruning would produce the tallest, the largest diameter, the most number of secondary roots formed, the heaviest biomass shoot – root ratio, the heaviest total biomass and the highest percentage survival.

Three hundred sixty wildlings were laid out following the 4 x 3 factorial in Randomized Completely Block Design with three replications. The treatments used were the following: Factor A – concentration of ANAA (A1 - pure ANAA 1:0; A2 - mixture of ANAA and water 1:1; A3 -mixture of water and ANAA 2:1; and A4 - pure water 0:1) and Factor B – length of pruning (B0 - control; B1 - 4cm from root collar; and B2 - 8cm from root collar).

Results of the study revealed no significant difference in the concentrations of ANAA in the diameter growth, height growth, number of secondary root formed, biomass shoot-root ratio, total wildling biomass, and in the percentage survival. However, length of pruning significantly affected the percentage survival of wildlings. Further, there was no significant interaction effect between the concentration of ANAA and length of pruning in all parameters taken.

The mixture of water and ANAA concentration resulted to better height growth, diameter growth, secondary roots, root-shoot ratio, total wildling biomass, and percentage survival. Length of pruning using wildlings pruned 4 cm from root collar produces the heaviest biomass shoot-root ratio and total wildlings biomass.

Gaspar, Cecile Laura B. 1996. Vegetative Propagation of Giant Bamboo (Gigantochloa aspera Kurtz) Under La Union Condition. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Bamboo is popularly known as the”poor man’s lumber.” One of the exotic species of bamboo is the giant bamboo. The growth of this species is faster and pole culm management is much bigger compared to the existing land species.

This study was conducted to determine which of the different parts of giant bamboo would be the best for vegetative propagation under La Union condition. The area was laid out following the RCBD with three treatments and four blocks. The treatments used were the following: T1 – culm cutting, T2 – branch cutting, and T3 – slat cutting.

Result showed significant differences on the number of sprouts and the height of sprouts. This could be attributed to the culm and slat cuttings that contain more carbohydrates for the production of more sprouts and faster elongation compared to branch cuttings. On the analysis of Phase II, significant differences occurred on height increment, number of sprouts and percentage survival produced because of the continued supply of the food stored in the culm and slot cuttings as compared to branch cutting.

Based from the findings of the study, the author recommends the following: the slat and culm parts of the giant bamboo could be considered for propagation; further study should be conducted before the outset of rainy season and for longer period of time to give ample time for observation; and for better results, the use of rooting hormone and fungicides should be considered.

Gavina, Edgar D. 1993. The Effects of Mycorrhizal Inoculation on the Early Growth and Survival of Agoho (Casuarina equisitifolia) As Shelterbelts. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Shelterbelts are long narrow line of vegetation consisting of a mixture of trees, shrubs and vines with the purpose of protecting valuable cropland from destructive winds. Agoho is considered as a promising shelterbelt.

The study was conducted to determine the effects of mycorrhizal inoculation on the growth and survival of Agoho. Randomized Complete Block Design was used in the lay-out with four treatments: T0 – control, T1 – 1 tablet mycogro, T2- 1 tablespoon mycovam and T3 – 1tablespoon mycovam + 1 tablet mycogro.

Results showed that there were no significant effects of the mycorrhizal inoculation on the monthly height, diameter increments and percentage survival of the outplanted Agoho seedlings.

Furthermore, any of the treatments (with or without inoculation) is recommended for Agoho seedlings.

Gonzales, Adonis L. 1995. Propagation of Two Varieties of Bamboo (Bambusa blumeana and Bambusa vulgaris) Using Different Portions of Culm Cuttings. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

The appropriate selection of the portion of the culms is vital in bamboo propagation. The right portion or part of the culm which has better root growth also varies according to species.

This study was conducted to determine which of the two bamboo varieties using different portions of culm cuttings could give the best performance in terms of growth and survival, number of shoots and roots produced. The 2 x 3 Factorial in Randomized Complete Block Design was used with the following treatments: Factor A (Bamboo varieties) A1– Kauayan tinik and A2 – Kauayan killing and Factor B (different portions) B1 – basal portion, B2 – middle portion and B3 – top portion.

The study revealed that on the length increment of the two varieties of bamboo, there was highly significant difference on the different portions of culm cuttings, top and middle being comparable but significantly

different to basal portion.

On the interaction effect, no significant differences were noted among the treatments. In terms of number of shoots, there was a significant difference between the two varieties as well as the different portions of culm cuttings.

However, on the interaction effect, the result revealed that varieties and portions did not vary on the number of shoots. On the different portions, the basal portion showed highly significant difference over the other portion used. The other parameters used showed no significant result.

Based from the results of the study, the researcher recommends the top and basal portion of the varieties of bamboo to be utilized as a source of propagated materials for better growth of shoots and roots and greater survival.

Herreria, Anna Marie. 2003. Asexual Propagation of Bani (Pongania pinnata (Linn.) Merr.) as Affected by Lengths of Soaking and Concentration to ANAA. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Asexual propagation is a form of plant propagation in which the progeny possess exactly the same characteristics as the parent plant. Bani can be propagated through stem cuttings using rooting hormones. The plant growth regulator (PGR) had been found effective in controlling or modifying plant growth. One of this is the Alpha-Naphthalene Acetic Acid (ANAA) which has been found effective in plant propagation that facilitates root formation.

This study was conducted to determine the response of bani cuttings to the lengths of soaking to ANAA. Four hundred eighty cuttings of bani were used in the study using the Two-Factor Factorial (4x4) in Randomized Complete Block Design with sixteen treatment combinations replicated three times. The treatments used were the following: Factor A (Length of Soaking): L0 - (Control); L1 - 6-hour soaking; L2 - 12-hour soaking; L3 – 18-hour soaking Factor B (Concentrations) C0 - tap water; C1 - 2 tablespoon/liter of water; C2 - 3 tablespoon /liter of water; C3 - 4 tablespoon/liter of water.

Results of the study revealed that in terms of the effect of length of soaking, there were significant effects on the average lengths and the average diameter of developed sprouts 60 days after planting. All other parameters taken had highly significant effect. In terms of the lengths of soaking and concentration to ANAA, bani cuttings soaked at 18 hours and any concentrations can be used to produce larger and bigger diameter of sprouts and higher percentage survival 90 DAP.

Based from the results of the study, the researcher recommends that for higher and bigger diameter and higher survival, bani cuttings should be soaked for 18 hours at different concentrations; further study should be done using juvenile cuttings; and the amount of rooting hormone should be computed based on recommended rates.

Judan, Louie T. 2002. Propagation of Narra (Pterocarpus vidalianus Rolfe.) Cuttings as Affected by Different Lengths of Exposures to ANAA. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

In a tree improvement and breeding program or in well-planned reforestation activity, selection of parent trees as seed sources of planting materials is highly indispensable. In reality, however, the common practice is to propagate whatever planting materials available at hand.

This study was conducted to determine the best length of exposure to ANAA that respond well on the early growth of prickly narra cuttings.

Twelve phenotypically healthy cuttings of prickly narra between 5-7cm in diameter and 1.2m length were gathered, prepared and propagated for the study. The treatments used were

the following: T0 - pure tap water; T1 – 6 hrs; T2 – 12 hrs; and T3 - 18 hrs. These were laid out using Completely Randomized Design.

Results of the study revealed no significant effect on the number of days from soaking to shoot emergence and number of developed sprouts 30, 60 and 90 DAP. Length and diameter of developed sprouts 30, 60 and 90 DAP showed no significant effect on the length of exposure to ANAA. However, all the cuttings for all the treatments had 100% survival at the termination of the study.

Based on the results obtained from the study, prickly narra trees can be propagated even without using ANAA.

Lais, Flora S. 1999. Vegetative Propagation of Bayog (Dendrocalamus merrilliannus Elm.) Using Different Parts of the Culm. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Bamboos are good reforestation species that could even grow in marginal lands like cogonal areas, survives summer drought and grass fire and develop a forest-like canopy rapidly. During growth to maturity, it can sustain annual harvest which can profitably return the cost of investment. With the important uses of bayog, there is a need to increase its production through asexual means.

The study was conducted to determine which of the three culm parts of bayog can give the best growth and percentage survival. It was laid out using the Randomized Complete Block Design replicated three times. Each replication was divided into three plots, thus, making a total of 9 plots for the whole study. The different treatments used were T1 – basal, T2 – middle, and T3 – tip.

The propagules were propagated directly in polyethylene bags filled with rice hull and sawdust. Bamboo propagules were placed at the center of the bag on a slanting position.

Results of the study revealed no significant differences in terms of the number of days to first sprout emergence, number and height of sprouts, and percentage survival.

Basal position had significantly higher difference over the tip portion as to the number and diameter of roots produced but comparable to the middle part of the culm of bayog.

The use of basal and middle portion of the culm is recommended as good sources of planting materials for they have dormant buds that are capable of producing new shoots

Maddumba, H.A., A.V.B. Lopez and M. E. Salvatera. 1995. Effectiveness of Rooting Hormone on the Survival and Root Development of Wildberry (Rubus Niveus Thumb.) Cuttings. Compilation of Research Abstracts, ERDS, DENR-CAR, Loakan, Baguio City, Philippines

This study was conducted to determine the concentration of IBA and ANAA that would enhance root development and survival of cuttings of wildberry and to compare the most effective rooting substance.

Cuttings of wildberry plants taken from the middle crown were used in the study. These cuttings were soaked for one hour in different concentrations of IBA and ANAA: 25 ppm, 50 ppm, 75 ppm, 100 ppm, 150 ppm, and 0 ppm or control.

On the survival of wildberry cuttings, analysis of variance revealed significant differences among the treatments at 5% and 1% level. Cuttings soaked in 50 ppm IBA (H1C2) gave the highest percent survival. However, this treatment was not significantly different from treatments H1C0 (0ppm IBA), H1C1 (25 ppm IBA), H1C4 (100 ppm IBA) and H2C0 (0 ppm ANAA). In terms of concentration, cuttings soaked in 75 ppm gave the lowest percent survival of cuttings and was significantly different from the rest of the concentrations (0, 25, 50, 100 and 150 ppm). The use of IBA as rooting hormone gave a better result on the survival of cuttings than ANAA.

The number and length of primary roots of wildberry cuttings were not significantly affected by the kind and concentrations of hormones.

Maddumba, H.A., A.V.B. Lopez and M.E. Salvatera.(1995). Survival and Root Development of Alumani (Vaccinum whitfordii Merr) Cuttings Under Various Soil Media. Compilation of Research Abstracts, ERDS, DENR-CAR, Loakan, Baguio City, Philippines

The study focused on the determination of the best soil medium and diameter class of alumani cuttings that will enhance root development and give the highest survival rate. The various soil media used were garden soil, compost, 1:1 mixture of pure sand and garden soil, 1:1 mixture of garden soil and compost, and 1:1 mixture of pure sand, garden soil and compost. The diameter classes of cuttings used were as follows: 0.5 – 1.0 cm; 1.01 – 1.5 cm and 1.51 – 2.0 cm.

Results showed high percent survival of alumani cuttings under the different diameter class (0.5-1.0; 1.01-1.5; 1.51-2.0 cm) using ordinary garden soil with the survival rates of 65%, 43% and 57%, respectively. Diameter class (05.0-1.51 cm) had the highest average survival rate among the diameter classes used with 27.5% followed by 1.51-2.00 cm diameter class with 18%. The diameter class of from 1.01-1.50 cm obtained the lowest percent survival of 17.2%.

On the number of the primary roots produced, the cuttings with diameter class (0.50-1.00 cm) planted in garden soil produced the most primary roots with 55 roots having an average length of 11.2 cm. This was followed by cuttings of diameter class (1.01-1.50 cm) with an average of 33 roots having a length of 7.5 cm then alumani cuttings with a diameter of 0.50 to 1.00 cm (planted in PS + GS) with 24 roots having a length of 8.2 cm. Cuttings planted in compost + sand had only 1 root with an average length of 1.3 cm.

Moog, Alfa O. 1994 . Transpiration Rate of Alnus (Alnus maritime Nutt) Seedlings. MSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad Benguet, Philippines

Transpiration is simply the loss of water in vapor form from the leaves. The broad and flattened shape of a leaf as well as its extensive internal surface enables the process of transpiration.

Leaves are pruned more than roots so that transpiration will not exceed the absorbing capacity of the roots. Over-size hard-wood seedlings may be cut to the desired length of both the steward tap root.

Six-month-old, potted, and vigorous/healthy Alnus seedlings of different height classes were selected. Six height classes (20, 25, 30, 35, 40, and 45 cm) served as treatments. Ten seedlings per treatment were used in the study.

Transpiration rate of Alnus was significantly affected by height, root-shoot, leaf area, air temperature, and relative humidity. It was not significantly affected by soil temperature.

Transpiration rate increased with increased air temperature and increased relative humidity. Seedlings measuring 20, 30 and 35 cm had a higher root-shoot ratio than seedlings measuring 25, 40, and 45 cm and had a higher leaf area than seedlings measuring 20, 25, and 35cm.

Recommendation includes pruning (root and shoot system) of seedlings; not planting Alnus in or near water sources; avoiding monoculture Alnus plantation; and conducting further studies aimed at determining transpiration rate of other Alnus species.

Noble, B.F.1984. Comparative Costs and Survival Rates of Direct-Seeding, Planting Germinates and Conventional Seedling Planting of Denuded Benguet Pine Areas. Compilation of Research Abstracts, PMSD, ERDB, DENR-CAR, Loakan, Baguio City, Philippines

Three methods of reforestation, namely: direct seeding, germinant planting and seedling planting of Benguet pine were compared in terms of cost, survival and total height growth increment. The cost incurred per hectare was lowest under the direct-seeding with P338.65, followed by the germinant planting (362). The highest cost was attained in the seedling planting technique with P2,050/ha.

In terms of mean survival percentage, the planted seedlings gave 70.2% survival which was significantly higher than either the direct-seeding with 15.8% of the germinant planting (26.2%). The average seedling survival percentage of the germinants showed significant variations over the direct-seeding.

For the total seedling height growth increment, the planted seedlings attained the highest average increment with 42.55 cm per seedling over an 18-month period. This growth increment differed significantly either from the height increment under the direct seeding (30.34 cm) or the planted germinants (31.72). The germinants failed to show any variation from the direct seeding technique in height growth increment.

Nolasco, Edlyn P. 2002. Effect of Root Pruning and Rooting Hormone of the Growth and Quality of Yemane (Gmelina arborea Roxb.) Seedlings. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Greening the country has long been the thrust of the government and is undertaking a massive reforestation program and tree planting program for varied reasons not only for the utilization of the wood and also the contribution to ecological balance.

This study was conducted to determine which of the three concentrations of ANAA and the length of pruning would produce the tallest height, largest diameter, the most number of secondary roots and the highest percentage survival. It also aimed to determine the interaction effect of ANAA concentration and length of pruning.

Three hundred sixty seedlings were used in the study and were laid out with the use of the 3 x 4 Factorial Experiment in Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications. The different treatments used were: Factor A (Concentration of ANAA) A1 – pure ANAA, A2 – mixture of ANAA and water, A3 – mixture of water and ANAA, A4 – pure water; and Factor B (Length of Pruning) B0 – Control, B1 – 4cm from root collar, B2 – 8cm from root collar.

Results of the study revealed no significant difference on the height, diameter growth, secondary roots, total seedling biomass, root shoot ratio and percentage survival. The interaction effects between the concentration of ANAA and the length of pruning revealed no significant difference in all parameters used.

Orallo, Cesar A.1980. Juvenille Growth Response of Benguet Pine (Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon) Seedlings of Various Provenances. Compilation of Research Abstracts, UPLB College of Forestry, Laguna, Philippines

Four most vigorous seedlings in each five-plus trees per collection zones were selected for outplanting. At the time of planting, all seedlings were described as being sturdy, stocky with well developed stem and root systems. The seedlings were obtained from a collection of five trees in 13 provenances distributed throughout its natural range in Luzon. The outplanting consisted of a randomized complete block design, with each family having an individual four-seedling linear plot.

Data were taken on diameter, height and environmental parameters. Results were analyzed using Analysis of variance. In the analysis, source of variations were sub-divided according to random effects observed owing to provenance, the factors of interaction between provenance and replications and families within provenance. Computations were also made on the correlation coefficient for measure traits.

Most of the quantitative characters studied, except for diameter, showed significant differences associated with provenance. Likewise, significant differences were noted on families within provenance. The statistical differences noted in each parameter were interpreted as an expression of genetic variation variability since environmental effect or pressure as well as the altitude of seed source indicated non-correlation with the parameters studied.

Provenances from the Central Cordillera, Baguio and Kayapa, including that of Carranglan and Malibcong provenances, were found to be superior in terms of height growth over the rest of the provenances. In terms of diameter growth however, no significant differences were observed among provenances although the extreme or outlier provenances from Zambales, Piddig and Carranglan outperformed the other provenances from Central Cordillera.

Ramirez, Walter. 1982. Growth and Survival of the Different Cuttings of Fire Resistant Species Planted in Cogonal Areas. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Forest fire often occurs during dry season especially in cogonal areas. Due to inevitable destructive effect of fire to forests, it is recommended to plant fire- resistant species with forest flora especially in cogonal areas believed to be a quick fire-catching area that leads to the spread of fire in the forest. These species, if they survived, are the first one to minimize or stop the fire from spreading.

The study was conducted to determine the growth and survival of the different cuttings of fire resistant species planted in cogonal areas. The study was laid-out using the Randomized Complete Block Design with 4 blocks. The treatments used were: T1- kakawate cuttings (Gliricidia sepium), T2- teak cuttings (Tectona grandis), T3 – Ipil –ipil cuttings (Leucaena leucocephala) and T4 - yemane (Gmelina arborea).

Result showed that kakawate cuttings produced the highest mean on the height of sprouts and highest percentage survival. Teak cuttings registered the lowest.

Based on the results of the study, kakawate cuttings are recommended.

Reynon, Allen Clarence G. 1996. Effects of Different Root Hormone Concentrations on the Rooting Rate and Survival of Asexually Propagated Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King) Cuttings. BSc Thesis, Mariano Marcos State University, Batac, Ilocos Norte, Philippines

Propagation by cuttings is a method of multiplying the vegetative parts of plants such as branches, leaves, buds and roots which are not from healthy parts of known variety. It is mostly practiced to species that produce short lived seeds and with plants which do not produce seeds regularly.

It aimed to determine the growth performance of mahogany cuttings as affected by different concentrations of Hormex root hormone and the optimum concentration of Hormex root inducing chemical for mahogany. The experiment was laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design with four treatments such as: T1 – control; T2 – 0.15% AI; T3 – 0.25% AI; T4 - 0.35% AI; and T5 – 0.45% AI.

The different concentrations of root hormone had no significant effect on the rooting and percentage survival of mahogany cuttings at different observation periods. Shoot diameter was significantly affected by the treatments of two and three weeks after planting, but were comparable at 4 weeks after planting. Length of shoot was insignificantly affected by the different treatments used.

Sanoan, Adelina. 1996. Growth and Survival of Himbabao (Broussonetia luzoniensis (Blanco) F. Vill.) Cuttings as Affected by Different Diameter Classes. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

This study was conducted from August 21, 1995 to October 22, 1995 at the Agroforestry Nursery, College of Agriculture and Forestry, North La Union Campus, Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University, Bacnotan, La Union. It aimed to evaluate the effects of diameter classes on the growth and survival of Himbabao cuttings. One hundred sixty cuttings, 40 for each of the diameter classes were used. The experiment was laid out in Completely Randomized Design with four replications.

The following treatments were used: T1 - 1.0 – 2.9 centimeters, T2 - 3.0 – 4.9 centimeters, T3 = 5.0 – 6.9 centimeters and T4 = 7.0 – 8.9 centimeters.

Results of the study revealed that cuttings with smaller diameter (1.0 cm – 2.9 cm and 3.0 cm – 4.9 cm) were the first to have sprouts with identical means of 6.76 days. Cuttings with diameters 5.0 cm – 6.9 cm were the last to have sprouts at 9.34 days.

In terms of the number of sprouts that emerged after 30 days and 60 days from planting, the performance of the four diameter classes is comparable. Cuttings with diameters 5.0 cm – 6.9 cm had the highest number of sprouts with means of 3.68 and 3.79 respectively while the cuttings with diameter 1.0 cm – 2.9 cm had the least with means of 2.16 and 2.20, respectively.

With regards to the diameter of main sprouts after 30 days, cuttings with diameter classes 1.0 cm – 2.9 cm had the biggest at 3.35 mm while cuttings with diameter classes 7.0 cm – 8.9 cm had the highest at 6.30 mm 60 days after planting. Cuttings in diameter class 5.0 cm – 6.9 cm had the least diameter after 30 days and after 60 days with means of 2.46 mm and 4.85, respectively.

With respect to the length of sprouts after 30 days and 60 days from planting, cuttings in diameter class 3.0 – 4.9 cm had the longest with means of 20.00 cm and 41.21cm respectively. In contrast, cuttings in diameter class 5.0 – 6.9 cm had the shortest with means of 8.48 cm and 21.00 cm, respectively.

As to the number of roots produced 60 days from planting, cuttings in diameter class 7.0 cm – 8.9 cm had the highest with a mean of 3.37 while cuttings in diameter class 3.0 cm – 4.9 cm had the lowest with a mean of 2.24. Similar results were obtained in terms of percentage survival. Cuttings in diameter class 7.0 cm – 8.9 cm had the highest while cuttings in diameter class 3.0 cm – 4.9 cm had the lowest with means of 4.99% and 2.54%, respectively.

However, Analyses of variance on all the parameters revealed insignificant differences. Hence, any of the diameter classes compared can be used in cutting propagation.

Sentenillar, Analyn M. 2001. Effect of ANAA and Non-Mist Method of Propagation on the Rooting Performance of Large- Leaf Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King) Shoot Cuttings. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Vegetative propagation through cuttings is a very important tool in practical forest genetics work to establish seed orchard from selected trees.

This study aimed to determine the response of mahogany shoot cuttings treated with ANAA through the non-mist method.

One hundred twenty shoot cuttings of mahogany were propagated following the 3 x 2 factorial of Randomized Complete Block Design with four replications. The treatments used in the study were as follows: Factor A – method of ANAA application (A0 - control, A1 - dipped in ANAA for 1min, and A2 - dipped in ANAA for 1min and watered with a mixture of ANAA and boiled water); and Factor B – non-mist method (B1 - with cover and B2 - without cover).

Results of the study revealed no significant differences in the final length and final diameter of the stem, length and diameter of the largest roots, and in the number of primary roots. Results revealed significant differences in the number of secondary roots and highly significant differences in the root biomass. Furthermore, results showed no significant interaction effect between the method of ANAA application and the non-mist method of ANAA application.

Based on the results of the study, the cuttings dipped in ANAA for 1min and watered with a mixture of boiled water and ANAA produced the most number of secondary roots. Non-mist method using covered propagation box produced the highest percentage survival of cuttings.

Taberdo, Reynaldo D. 1996. Vegetative Propagation of Three Ornamental Bamboo Species Under La Union Condition. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

This study was conducted to determine the best species and vegetative parts of ornamental bamboo for planting material; and to determine which among the three varieties of ornamental bamboo would give the greatest number of shoots, number of roots, best height of shoots, biggest diameter of shoots, and highest survival. It was conducted at the Agritech Training Center Bamboo Production, DMMMSU-NLUC, Bacnotan, La Union from September 16 to November 16, 1995.

One-hundred eighty selected cuttings of three different species of ornamental bamboo: hedges bamboo, straited bamboo and buddha bamboo, were propagated in the study and were laid out in two Factorial Randomized Complete Block Design with three treatments and two blocks.

The treatments used were the following: Factor A – Varieties: Ai – hedges bamboo, A2 – straited bamboo, A3­­ – Buddha bamboo; and Factor B – Different vegetative parts: B1 – culm cuttings, B2 – branch cutting.

The study revealed that on the length of sprouts of species of ornamental bamboo, there were highly significant differences between them while on the vegetative part, the result was comparable with each other. However, on the interaction effect, no significant difference was noted among the treatments used.

In terms of the diameter of sprouts, there was a highly significant difference between the species and vegetative parts. Buddha bamboo under culm cutting produced shoot with the biggest diameter compared to the other species that were used.

With regards to the number of sprouts, straited bamboo produced more sprouts than the other species but finally the interaction effect between species showed that there was highly significant difference with each other in terms of number of sprouts.

On the number of roots, Buddha bamboo produced the highest number of roots among the species but the interaction effect showed that the result was comparable with each other among the treatments used in the study.

On the length of roots of species of bamboo, Buddha bamboo had the tallest length of roots. On the interaction in terms of the vegetative parts of Buddha bamboo, highly significant difference was noted among the treatments used.

On the percentage survival, straited bamboo produced the highest survival among the species used. Likewise, the vegetative parts and the interaction had highly significant difference among them.

Based on the results of the study, the researcher recommends the two species, which are straited and Buddha bamboo, in terms of culm cuttings that should be utilized as source of propagation materials for better growth of sprouts, roots, diameter and greater survival.

Yasay, Judilyn. 1992. The Effect of Different Lengths of Stump of Outplanted Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) Seedlings on Cogonal Areas. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

In view of the economic importance of mahogany, it is important to have a study on the growth and survival of mahogany seedlings by stump planting.

The main objective of the study was to determine the best length of stump that will respond to the favorable growth and survival of mahogany seedlings outplanted in cogonal areas.

The design used in the study was the Randomized Complete Block Design with the different treatments used: A - 6 cm long, B - 8 cm long, C -10

cm long, D - 12 cm long. Results of the study revealed that seedlings with stump of 12 cm long gave the most number and longest sprouts, the longest and the highest percentage survival. However, the analysis of variance on all the parameters gave no significant differences among treatments used.

Further study may be conducted on the effect of different lengths of stumps on the growth and survival of mahogany seedlings by applying thinning on the sprout leaving only one to two sprouts per stump for a longer period of time.

Fertilization

Alcantara, Resty S. 1994. Growth and Survival of Outplanted Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King.) Applied with Different Rates of Mycovam. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

The general objective of this study was to determine the growth and survival of mahogany seedlings as affected by different rates of mycovam.

An area of 480 square meters with moderately rolling, with an approximately slope of 30-35 degrees was used in the study and laid out using RCBD. The different treatments used were the following: T0 – control, T1 – 10 grams/seedling, T2 – 15 grams/seedlings, and T3 – 20 grams/seedlings.

The results revealed that the use of 20 grams/seedling of mycovam resulted to the greatest mean monthly height increment of the mahogany seedlings while the use of 15 grams/seedling resulted to the widest diameter mean monthly increment of the mahogany seedling. For percentage survival, the results showed that uninoculated seedlings obtained 100% survival, followed by T1, T2 and T3 with identical mean percentage survival of 97.78%.

Based on the findings of the study, inoculation of mycovam at 20 grams/seedling had the greatest mean monthly height increment and inoculation of mycovam at 15 grams/seedling had the widest mean monthly diameter increment.

Belleza, Susan M. and Zaldy G. Ragasa. 1986. Performance of Outplanted Bagras (Eucalyptus deglupta Blume) Seedling As Affected by Varying Rates of Swine Manure Application. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Due to the worsening economic scenario, where the prices of basic needs and prime commodities like commercial fertilizers have been increasing, one should turn to the traditional use of organic fertilizers. This form of fertilizers could be derived from animal wastes such as those from swine.

This study was conducted to determine which of the different rates of swine manure application would result to the best growth and survival of Bagras seedlings.

The experimental design used in the study was the Randomized Complete Block Design with the following treatments: A – control, B – 0.343 kg/hill, C – 0.686 kg/hill and D – 1.029 kg/hill.

The results of the study showed that Bagras seedlings applied with 0.343 kg/hill (B) had the best growth and survival. Plants that had no manure application had the lowest height increment and the lowest final height, while plants applied with 1.029 kg/hill (D) had the lowest monthly diameter. In view of the result of the study, swine manure application is recommended for four -month old Bagras seedlings.

Boado, Wilfredo F. 1991. Performance of Potted Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King) and Narra (Pterocarpus indicus Wild.) Seedlings as Affected by Different Levels of Inorganic Fertilizers. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Aside from being easily applied, inorganic fertilizers can increase rapid growth and development of plants.

The study was conducted to determine the growth performance of potted mahogany and narra seedlings as affected by different levels of inorganic fertilizers. One hundred eighty seedlings of each species was used in the study. These were distributed and arranged in 2 x 4 factorial experiment in the Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications.

The factors used were: Factor A (species); S1 – mahogany, S2 - narra and Factor B (rate of fertilizer); F0 – control

(no fertilizer), F1 – 3.25g/plant, F2 – 6.50g/plant and F3 – 9.75g/plant.

Results revealed that narra seedlings applied with 6.5 g of nitrogen consistently produced the greatest monthly height and diameter increment throughout the duration of the study. Mahogany applied with 3.25 grams of nitrogen produced the greatest monthly height and diameter increment.

The two species of seedlings showed highly significant differences on the second, third and fourth monthly height increment. The different rates of fertilizer application exhibited highly significant results on the monthly height increment of the seedlings throughout the duration of the study.

The interaction effect between species and fertilizer application yielded highly significant results on the monthly height increment throughout the duration of the study due to gradual effect of fertilizer application in both species. The interaction effect between species and fertilizer application were found to be insignificant on the diameter increment.

Based on the results of the study, mahogany seedlings should be applied with 3.25 grams of nitrogen/plant which was done by applying the recommended rate of phosphorus at the time of planting mixed with one-half of the recommended rate for nitrogen to be applied 30 days after planting. If narra is to be propagated at plantation stock, it should be applied with 6.5 grams of nitrogen per plant.

Bolesa, Randy A. 2000. Growth and Survival of Bamboo Species as Affected by Inorganic Fertilizers (Urea and Ammophos) Planted in Degraded Area. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

One common problem of the outplanted bamboo is the slow growth recovery due to poor soil especially in degraded areas. For this reason, fertilization is important because it is proven to be one of the most effective growth regulators.

The study was conducted to determine which of the four bamboo species applied with different levels of fertilizers would give the best performance in terms of growth and survival, number of sprouts, length of shoots and diameter of shoots produced.

The 4 x 4 factorial in Randomized Complete Block Design with the following treatments were used: Factor A (Species) S1 – kauayan tinik, S2 – kauayan bayog, S3 - giant bamboo, S4 – budha bamboo and Factor B (levels of fertilizer) L0 – (control), L1 – 167.96g/hill, L2 – 230.97 g/hill, L3 - 350.95 g/hill.

Results of the study revealed that there is a significant effect of species on the number of sprouts at 15,30, 45 and 60 days from planting, with kauayan tinik (S1 having the most number of sprouts comparable to kauayan bayog (S2 ) and giant bamboo (S3). In terms of height of shoots, number of sprouts produced and on the diameter of shoots at 15, 30, 45 and 60 days after planting, the different levels of fertilizer did not show significant effect.

However, significant effect of fertilization was realized 30 days after planting. It was further observed that the diameter of shoots followed a decreasing trend as the level of fertilizer decreased. Furthermore, the study found no significant interaction effect between species and levels of fertilization on all the parameters taken at various periods of data collections.

All the species of bamboo can be planted in degraded areas in La Union even without fertilization.

Butic, Crisanto. 2001. Adaptability of Benguet Pine Seedlings (Pinus kesiya Royle ex. Gordon) as Affected by Mycorrhizal Inoculation Under Nursery Conditions. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Mycorrhizal inoculation improves and increases the survival of outplanted seedlings. It gives the plant more minerals needed for its growth and development.

Mycorrhiza was found out to improve the growth and survival of seedlings on a variety of adverse reforestation sites. Their presence likewise increases the tolerance of some trees to drought, high soil temperature, organic and inorganic toxins and extreme of soil pH. Mycorrhizal fungi provide a mechanical barrier to infections caused by pathogens in the form of the fungus mantle and secrete antibiotics that may kill pathogens.

The main objective of this study was to determine the adaptability of Benguet pine seedlings as affected by mycorrhizal inoculation under nursery condition.

Initial and monthly height and diameter, and percentage survival of Benguet pine seedlings were observed using the following treatments: T0 – control, T1 – one tablet mycogro, T2 – 20 grams mycovam and T3 – 1 tablet mycogro + 20 grams mycovam. The method of inoculation was placed 2 cm deep inside the potted seedlings and 3 cm away from the stem. The area was laid-out using the Randomized Complete Block Design.

The results showed that there were no significant differences among the four treatments used in terms of height, diameter and percentage survival of Benguet pine seedlings 120 days after inoculation.

Based from the findings of the study, Benguet pine seedlings inoculated with mycogro produced the tallest seedlings and produced the widest diameter 30, 60, 90 and 120 days after inoculation.

Cabebe, Manuel. 1983. Performance of Large- Leaf Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) Seedlings as Affected by Different Levels of Urea Fertilizer Application. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Rosario, La Union, Philippines

Lack of nutrients limit the production of good quality lumber thus, application of commercial fertilizer is needed.

The study was conducted to find out the effect of urea (45-0-0) fertilizer on the growth of mahogany seedlings and to determine the best level of urea needed by mahogany seedlings to attain maximum growth. The treatments used were: T0- control, T1- 5 grams of urea/plant, T2- 10 grams of urea/plant, and T3- 15 grams of urea/plant. The Randomized Complete Block Design was used in the lay-out of the study.

Analysis of variance showed highly significant differences among the treatment means on the average height and diameter increment of seedlings at 30 days, 30 to 60 days and 60 to 90 days after urea application. Significant differences existed among the treatment means on the final diameter; however, there was no significant difference on the average height and diameter of seedlings before the urea application, percentage survival and final height of seedlings at 90 days after urea application.

It was found out that application of urea fertilizer at the rate of 15 grams/plant promoted the best growth of mahogany seedlings.

Cacot, Reynalyn M. 1997. Growth and Survival of Nursery-Grown Bayog (Bambusa blumeana var luzonensis) as Affected by Different Levels of Complete Fertilizer. BSc Thesis, Mariano Marcos State University, Batac, Ilocos Norte, Philippines.

Mass production of bamboo in the nursery is hampered by its low survival and growth in ordinary garden soil. To improve further the growth and development of this species in the nursery, fertilization studies using potting medium is still needed.

The study aimed to compare the effects of the different levels of complete fertilizer on the survival and growth of one-node Bayog propagules and to determine the best fertilizer level that will exhibit the best response.

The experiment was laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design with five treatments and three replications. The treatments were: T1 – control; T2 - 20g 14-14-14/plant; T3 – 40g 14-14-14/plant; T4 – 60g 14-14-14/plant; and T5 – 80g 14-14-14/plant. The parameters used were number of shoots, average height and diameter increment, and percentage survival.

Results revealed no significant differences among treatments in all the parameters tested in the study except for average height increment which was significantly enhanced by the application of complete fertilizer at 80g/plant. It was also the tallest but was not markedly different from those treated with 20 g and 60 g complete fertilizer.

Results suggest that the use of 20 g complete fertilizer is sufficient enough to remarkably increase height growth of Bayog propagules. However, results are not yet conclusive; a similar study is therefore recommended to arrive at a more reliable result.

Doles, Amancio. 1982. Effects of Different Manures on the Germination and Growth of Coffee (Coffea arabica). BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Due to high cost of commercial fertilizers, farmers are trying to look into other sources like animal manures.

The study was conducted to determine the effect of animal manure on the germination, growth and survival of coffee. The treatments used in the study were: T1- garden soil (control), T2- ½ garden soil + ½ swine manure, T3- ½ garden soil + ½ cow manure, T4- ½ garden soil + ½ chicken manure.

The results revealed that there were no significant differences among treatment means on the percentage germination of seeds 90 days after sowing, average height and diameter of seedlings 90 and 120 days after sowing. However, the monthly increment in terms of height and diameter, and percentage survival showed significant differences.

With regards to the final height and diameter, results revealed highly significant difference among treatment means.

It was further observed that treatment applied with chicken manure had better performance as compared to the other treatments.

Dumpit, Fernando C. Napoleon C. and Ruben A. Mapala. 1986. The Growth and Survival of Outplanted Yemane (Gmelina arborea) Seedlings as Affected by Application of Different Animal Manure. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

The introduction of fast – growing tree species like yemane enables us to rehabilitate denuded forest areas. For better growth and development of fast-growing tree species, fertilizer is needed.

This study was conducted to determine which of the animal manures when applied to yemane would result to the best performance under DMMMSU condition. The Randomized Complete Block Design was used in the study with the following treatments: Ta- control (no manure), Tb- swine manure, Tc- chicken dung, and Td- carabao manure.

The study revealed that plants in Treatment A (no manure) gave the highest results in all the parameters taken except on the percentage survival where the treatments were significant.

Based on the result of the study, with or without application of animal manure is recommended for growing yemane plants.

Estoque, Ronald C. 2001. Growth of Yakal (Shorea gisok Foxw.) Seedlings with Mycorrhizal Inoculation and Slow-Release Nitrogen Fertilizer Application. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

To meet the needed supply of raw materials for the forest industry and to safeguard the important social and environmental functions of the forest ecosystems, there is a need to improve the propagation strategies and study further the essential needs of seedlings particularly Yakal under nursery condition. Thus, silvicultural treatments should be applied. Among those treatments are mycorrhizal inoculation and fertilizer application.

This study was conducted to determine the effect of mycorrhizal inoculation and slow release N fertilizer on the growth and survival of Yakal seedlings. Two hundred forty Yakal seedlings were used in the study and were laid out using 2 x 3 Factorial Experiment in Completely Randomized Design with six treatment combinations replicated four times. The treatments used were the following: Factor A (Mycorrhizal Inoculation): A0 – uninoculated, A1 – inoculated; Factor B (Nitrogen Fertilizer Application): B0 – Control, B1 – applied with quick-release fertilizer, and B2 – applied with slow-release fertilizer.

The study revealed that there was a significant effect of mycorrhizal inoculation and application of slow release N fertilizer on the average height and diameter of Yakal. The study also found no significant interaction effect between mycorrhizal inoculation and fertilizer application in all the parameters taken.

The author recommends the use of mycorrhizal inoculation and the application of slow release N fertilizer in seedling production for Yakal to have taller and bigger diameter.

Farol, Teresita. 1992. The Effect of Inoculants on the Growth and Survival of Yemane (Gmelina arborea Roxb.) Seedlings Planted in Different Sites. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Yemane is good for vast reforestation; hence to hasten its growth, inoculants contribute much of it.

The study was conducted to determine the effect of inoculants on the growth and survival of yemane seedlings planted in two different sites under DMMMSU conditions from October 5, 1991 to February 5, 1992.

Two hundred forty yemane seedlings were used in the study and were laid out in two factorial Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications. The treatments used were the following: Factor A – site where A1 – hagonoy area and A2 – ipil-ipil plantation and under Factor B – inoculation – where B0 – control (no inoculants) and B1 – with inoculants.

The study revealed that seedlings planted within the hagonoy area had the highest monthly height increments from 30 to 120 days after planting and had the biggest diameter increment from 90 to 120 days after planting. Also, seedlings planted under hagonoy area had the highest percentage survival with a mean of 90%. However, inoculated seedlings were comparable to uninoculated seedlings throughout the four- month study period.

Based on the results of the study, only the final diameter of the yemane seedlings as affected by site showed significant differences, while no significant differences were noted on all other parameters gathered.

As such, it is hereby recommended that planting of uninoculated yemane seedlings in the hagonoy area and the ipil-ipil plantation should be done.

Fernandez, Resty B. 1998. Field Survival and Growth Response of One-Year Old Bayog (Bambusa blumeana var. luzonensis) to NPK Fertilizer Application. BSc Thesis, Mariano Marcos State University, Batac, Ilocos Norte, Philippines

Bamboo plantations are easy to establish and less expensive to maintain than that of tree plantations because they are less susceptible to diseases and insect attacks. Since the areas which are most likely available for bamboo plantation development in the Ilocos region are the marginal lands, which are less fertile and unproductive, it is necessary to apply fertilizer in order to ensure good survival, growth and development.

A field study was conducted to compare the effects of different levels of NPK fertilizer on the growth and survival of one-year old bayog clumps, and to determine the fertilizer level that exhibit the best response.

The fertilizer levels used as treatments were: T1 – no fertilizer application; T2 – 20-10-10Kg NPK ha-1; T3 – 40-20-20Kg NPK ha-1; and T4 – 80-40-40Kg NPK ha-1. The experiment was laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design with four treatments and three replications. The survival rate of the clumps, culms height and diameter growth, and the number of shoots and culms produced were the parameters used to assess the effects of the treatments.

Results revealed no marked effects of the varying levels of NPK fertilizer. It may not be necessary to enhance the growth and survival of one-year old Bayog. However, similar studies should be conducted in other sites at longer observation periods to verify the results of the study.

Gacilos, Eden G. 2002. Response of Molave Seedlings (Vitex parviflora Juss.) to Different Dosages of Urea. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

The vanishing natural forest which resulted from the widely practiced slash-and-burn method affects naturally growing molave trees. Few trees left have difficulty regenerating naturally and they definitely accelerate the molave trees’ extinction.

This study was conducted to determine the effect of different dosages of urea on the diameter and height and percentage survival of molave seedlings. One hundred twenty (120) potted seedlings were used in the study. It was laid out following the Randomized Complete Block Design with eight treatments replicated three times. The treatments used in the study were T0 – control; T1 – 10 grams urea/liter of water; T2 – 20 grams urea/liter of water; T3 – 30 grams urea/liter of water; T4 – 40 grams urea/liter of water’; T5 – 50 grams urea/liter of water; T6 – 60 grams urea/liter of water; and T7 – 70 grams urea/liter of water.

Results showed that there was highly significant differences among the treatments used on the average initial height and diameter. A highly significant result was noted on the average final height and diameter, average height and diameter growth increment and average percentage survival.

Gade, Irene M. & Jessie G. Milo.1985. Response of Yemane (Gmelina arborea Roxb.) Seedlings to Varying Rates of Cattle Manure Application. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Manure is a good source of hormones which contains major and minor elements and carries beneficial organism to keep the soil in good condition for plants growth. They maintain soil productivity and bring about soil improvement because they contain substances that give certain growth promoting constituents.

This study was conducted to determine the effect of varying rates of cattle manure application on the growth and survival of out - planted Yemane seedlings. Randomized Complete Block Design was used in the lay out with four replications. The treatments used were: T0 - control (no application), T1 – 444 g of cattle manure/tree (lower than the recommended rate), T2- 888 g of cattle manure/tree (recommended rate), T3 – 1332 g of cattle manure/tree (higher than the recommended rate.

Results revealed that 888 g of cattle manure/tree had the highest diameter increment and monthly height increment while plants with no manure had the lowest increment. Plants applied with T3 were observed to be the tallest and had the highest percentage survival while plants with no manure were the shortest and had the lowest percentage survival. However, analysis of variance revealed insignificant results among all the treatments used.

Therefore, Treatment 2 (888 g/tree) and Treatment 3 (1332 g/tree) are recommended.

Hidalgo, Bartolome G. and Henry P. Hidalgo. 1982. The Effects of Different Rates of NPK Fertilizer on the Height and Diameter Growth of Bagras (Eucalyptus deglupta) Saplings. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Slow growth recovery of newly outplanted seedlings is one of the common problems in reforestation projects due to poor soil nutrients, especially in marginal and sub-marginal areas. To explore possible means in accelerating growth recovery after outplanting, fertilization is proven to be one of the most effective growth regulators, hence it is imperative, therefore to know what varying rates of fertilizer would give the best.

The objectives of the study were to determine which of the different rates of NPK fertilizers (14-14-14) would give the best growth performance of bagras saplings. It was conducted at the forest experimental site of the

College of Agriculture and Forestry from December 22 1980 to April 22, 1981, using the RCBD.

The treatments used in the study were as follows: A-control, B-420 kg/ha, C-640 kg/ha and D-860 kg/ha.

The response of saplings in terms of plant height eight months after fertilizer application was not significantly affected by the different rates of fertilizer. However, plants treated with 420 kg/ha were the tallest while the unfertilized plants were the shortest. On the other hand, number of leaves and number of branches were significantly affected by the different rates of fertilizer.

Jimeno, Ardaine Florence P. 2000. Growth and Survival of Bamboo Species Planted in the Grassland as Affected by Inorganic Fertilizer. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

The slow growth recovery of outplanted bamboo is one of the common problems in reforestation project due to poor soil nutrient, especially in the marginal areas. Researchers along this line are trying to explore means in accelerating growth recovery after planting. Fertilizer is proven to be one of the most effective growth regulators.

This study was conducted to determine the growth and survival of the bamboo species planted in the grassland as affected by inorganic fertilizer. One hundred sixty bamboo propagules of four different species were planted in the study site and laid out in two-factorial Randomized Complete Block Design with four treatments and two blocks. The treatments used were the following: Factor A (Species) S1 - Kawayan tinik; S2 - Bayog; S3 - Giant bamboo; and S4 - Buddha bamboo; and Factor B (Levels of Fertilizer) L0 - Control; L1 - 99.57 g/hill; L2 - 150 g/hill; L3 - 176 g/hill.

Results of the study showed that there were highly significant differences on the number of sprout among the bamboo species used. On the levels of fertilizer, the result was comparable. In terms of the diameter of shoots, giant bamboo had the biggest diameter followed by bayog, while the tallest was obtained from kawayan tinik. On percentage survival, giant bamboo and kawayan tinik produced the highest survival among the species used. There was a highly significant difference on the survival percentage as affected by both the bamboo species used and levels of fertilizer applied.

Based on the results of the study, giant bamboo and kawayan tinik are recommended for planting in grassland areas for higher survival.

Labcaen, Grace D. 2002. Adaptability of Palosapis Seedlings (Anisoptera thurifera Blume.) as Affected by Mycorrhizal Inoculation and Fertilizer Application Under DMMMSU-NLUC Condition. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

 

Fertilizer application is one of the most important operations in profitable farming to produce better quality of woods.

This study was conducted to determine the adaptability of Palosapis as affected by mycorrizal inoculation and fertilizer application.

The treatments used in the study were as follows: T0 – Control, T1 – Urea (6.5 grams), T2 – mycorrhizal (1 tablet), and T3 – mycorrhizal + urea.

The study revealed that there was significant effect of the mycorrhizal inoculation and fertilizer application on the final height and diameter, average monthly height and diameter increment of the Palosapis seedlings.

Furthermore, the study found out that Palosapis is adaptable under DMMMSU-NLUC condition. The author, therefore, recommends both mycorrhizal + urea in seedling production of Palosapis.

Lales, Noelfredo G. 2003. Response of Mahogany (Sweitenia macrophylla King.) Seedlings as Affected by Frequency of Algafer Foliar Fertilizer Application. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

One way to supplement nutrient loss or nutrient loss or nutrient deficiencies in soil is through the use of foliar fertilizer.

This study was conducted to determine the effect of Algafer foliar fertilizer on the height, diameter, and number of compound leaves and leaf area of mahogany seedlings under nursery condition.

The study was laid out using the Randomized Complete Block Design with three blocks and five treatments. The different treatments were as follows: T0 – Control, T1 – 7 days interval, T2 – 14 days interval, T3 – 21 days interval, and T4 – 30 days interval.

The results of the study revealed that all the parameters taken were insignificant. Based from the result of the study, the researcher recommends that mahogany be grown without the application of Algafer foliar fertilizer.

Litaoen, Tina D. 2000. Growth and Survival of Four Bamboo Species Planted in Degraded Area as Affected by Inorganic Fertilizers (Urea and Ammophos) Four Months After Planting. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Bamboos can survive in many soil types and grow best in well-drained soil like in degraded area.

The study aimed to follow up the growth and survival of bamboo that was planted in degraded areas and applied with different levels of inorganic fertilizer four months after out planting.

A degraded land covering an area of 4,000 sq m clay loam soil planted with bamboo species namely: bayog (Dendrocalamus marrilanus, Elm); Buddha bamboo (Bambusa tuldoides Munro. Syn. L. Ventricosa Mc Lure), giant bamboo (Dendrocalamos aspera, Kurtz) and kawayan tinik (Bambusa blumeana Schults) at a distance of 5 m x 5 m. They were applied basally with Inorganic fertilizer with a level of: Control, 167.96 g/hill, 230.97 g/hill and 350.95 g/hill. F-test procedure of a 4 x 4 factorial experiment in Randomized Complete Block Design was used.

The study revealed no significant effect of bamboo species and levels of fertilizer on the number of shoots of bamboo from 120 up to 195 days after out-planting. Likewise, no significant result was obtained on the diameter of shoots, height of shoots and percentage survival of bamboo seedlings as affected by levels of fertilizer. However, significant results were obtained on the diameter and height of shoots from 120 up to 195 days after out-planting as affected by species.

The four bamboo species can be grown in degraded areas even without fertilizer application.

Malbog, Norma B. 1982. Response of Potted Bagras (Eucalyptus deglupta Blume) Seedlings to Different Levels of NPK Fertilizer. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

The effect of fertilizer on the growth and development of trees have been studied by recent researchers. Fertilizer application to seedling is beneficial because the slow growth recovery of planted seedling is a serious problem in forest management.

The study was conducted from November 1981 to January 1982 to determine the response of potted bagras seedlings to different levels of NPK fertilizer following the RCBD with 4 treatments and 4 replications.

Results revealed that seedlings in Tb were the tallest in height and diameter. However, ANOVA showed no significant result among all treatments used. In terms of mean number of leaves still, Tb produced the most number of leaves. ANOVA revealed significant result among the treatments. On the diameter growth of seedling, Tb gave the best growth, however ANOVA showed comparable result among treatments used.

Findings of the study revealed that fertilization increased the height increment, diameter and the most number of leaves; therefore, fertilization in forest plantation is recommended.

Manzano, Angelito V. 1996. Effects of Different Fertilizers on the Growth and Survival of Two Bamboo Species. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

This study was conducted to determine which of the two bamboo species applied with three kinds of fertilizers could give the best performance in terms of growth and survival, number of sprouts, length of shoots, and diameter of shoots produced. It was conducted at the Agroforestry Experimental site of the College of Agriculture and Forestry, DMMMSU-NLUC, Bamboo Project entitled: “Demonstration and Pilot Application on Technology Packages and Production Systems in Bamboo”, a joint project between DMMMSU-NLUC and DOST-PCARRD, Bacnotan, La Union from September 27, 1995 to December 27, 1995.

Seventy-two selected seedlings of “kauayan bayog” and “kauayan tinik” were used in the study and laid out in two Factorial experiments in RCBD with three blocks. The treatments used were the following: Factor A: Species - S1 - kauayan Bayog, S2 -kauayan tinik, Factor B: fertilizer- L1 – Durabloom, L2 - Sagana 100, L3 – inorganic (14-14-14).

The study generally revealed that kauayan tinik and kauayan bayog applied with Durabloom produced more sprouts than those applied with inorganic fertilizer (14-14-14) and Sagana 100. The interaction effect revealed a highly significant result between the species used but not on fertilizers used.

Based on the findings of the study, the researcher recommends that kauayan tinik and bayog be used as bamboo planting material. Furthermore, Durabloom, inorganic (14-14-14) and Sagana 100 fertilizers are recommended for bamboo plantation but should be applied prior to the onset of rainy season for better results.

Nana, Maricel B. 2002. Adaptability of Palosapis (Anisoptera thurifera Blanco Blume) with Mycorrhizal Inoculation and Swine Manure Application at DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union Condition. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Dipterocarp serves as the one of the most important timber which largely contributes to the stability of environment by preventing soil erosion and watershed areas. One member of the family Dipterocarpaceae is Palosapis, which is a large to very large forest tree with straight regular bole and diameter of 40-120 cm.

The study was conducted to determine the performance of Palosapis, such as height growth, diameter growth and survival; as affected by mycorrhizal inoculation and swine manure application.

The experiment was laid out using Randomized Complete Block Design with four treatments assigned to three blocks with each plot containing 12 plants. Treatments used were: T0 - no application or control, T1 - applied with 13.6g of swine manure, T2 - applied with one tablet of mycogroe, one cm away from the base of the seedling and 5cm deep, and T3 - applied by both swine manure and mycogroe.

Results revealed that the applications had no significant effect on the performance of Palosapis seedling and any of the four treatments can be used.

Nelmida, V. and O. Corpus, 1985. Response of Outplanted Bagras (Eucalyptus deglupta Blume) as Affected by Different Kinds of Animal Manure. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Manures such as cattle, swine and chicken, when fully decomposed add fertility to the soil and promote better aeration. The use of animal manure is one solution to beat up problem on high cost of commercial fertilizers.

The study aimed to determine the response of outplanted bagras as affected by different kinds of animal manure in terms of growth and survival. Randomized Complete Block Design was used in the lay-out with 4 treatments namely: T0- control (no manure application), T1 – cattle manure (0.9 kg), T2

chicken manure (0.3 kg), T3 - swine manure (0.7 kg).

Application of animal manures had no significant effect on monthly height increment, final height and final diameter. However, it showed significant effect on monthly diameter increment and percentage survival.

The unfertilized plants had the greatest monthly increment but lowest in terms of percentage survival. Plants applied with swine manure had the biggest monthly diameter increment and plants applied with cattle manure had the highest percentage survival.

Nerona, Alfredo F, 1985. Growth Performance of Jackfruit Seedlings As Affected by Different Levels of Azolla. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

The production of this specie is necessary as a source of additional income, thus high nitrogen content like azolla is needed to speed up its growth.

The study was conducted to determine the growth performance of jackfruit seedlings as affected by the different levels of azolla using Randomized Complete Block Design with five treatments: T1- 200 grams of azolla, T2- 400 grams of azolla, T3- 600 grams of azolla, T4- 800 grams of azolla, T5- 1000 grams of azolla.

Results showed that there were no significant differences among treatment means of the initial height, monthly height increment, initial diameter, and monthly diameter increment throughout the duration of the study.

It is recommended, therefore, that jackfruit seedlings should be basally applied with fresh azolla at the rate of 1000 grams per plant.

Nonesa, Wilfredo N. 1988. Performance of Outplanted Yemane (Gmelina arborea Roxb.) Seedlings as Affected by Chicken Manure at Various Stages of Decomposition. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Tree plantations are established to meet the wood demands and at the same time to check the fast denudation rate. In view of the tremendous demand for yemane products, there is a need to increase its production through intensive culture. This can be done by the utilization of organic fertilizer, like chicken manure which is available in the farm/backyard.

This study was conducted to determine which of the different stages of decomposition of collected chicken manure would give the best growth and survival of the outplanted yemane seedlings. Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with four treatments replicated four times was used. The treatments used in the study were: TA - 45 days decomposition of collected chicken manure, TB - 35 days decomposition of collected chicken manure, TC - 25 days decomposition of collected chicken manure and TD - 15 days decomposition of collected chicken manure.

Results showed that 45 days decomposition of collected chicken manure resulted to highest monthly increment, biggest monthly diameter increment, tallest final height and biggest final diameter of yemane plants. On percentage survival, 15 days decomposition of collected chicken manure had the highest mean. All the parameters resulted to insignificant differences among treatments.

Poec, Nicanor B. 1996.Effect of Different Rates of Inorganic Fertilizer on the Growth and Survival of Selected Indigenous Multipurpose Tree Species. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines            

Fertilizer is an important factor to consider in the solution of nutritional deficiency in almost all kinds of plants.

This study was conducted to determine which among the selected Indigenous Multipurpose Tree Species (MPTS) could best grow and survive as affected by different rates of organic fertilizer. The Split Plot Design was used with three blocks. Each block was divided into three mainplot with four subplots. The different treatments used were: Mainplot (Indigenous MPTS): S1 - Tamarind; S2 - Anchoan dilaw; S3 - Kamachile. Subplot (Fertilizer rate): L0 - No fertilizer (Control); L1 - 10.5 g of 46-0-0 + 15 g of 16-20-0; L2 - 21 g of 46-0-0; L3

31.5 f of 46-0-0+ 22.5 g of 16-20-0.

Results showed that Anchoan dilaw (S2) significantly produced the widest monthly diameter increment and diameter, 120 days from planting.

No significant differences were observed on the percentage survival of the selected indigenous multipurpose tree species, fertilizer rate and on the interaction effect between the species and the rates of fertilizer.

Based on the results of the study, Anchoan dilaw is the most recommended as forest cover crop to denuded areas because of its early rapid growth and development even without the application of inorganic fertilizer.

Pol-oc, Fortunato L. and Patricio G. Tubaang. 1985. Growth and Survival of Outplanted Yemane (Gmelina arborea Roxb.) Seedlings as Affected by Varying Rates of Swine Manure Application. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

The rapid increase of prices of prime commodities today like commercial fertilizer is a reason to find alternatives to lower down the use of input in production. The use of swine manure as a substitute for a commercial fertilizer is feasible as it is abundant in the farm and cheap.

The study aimed to determine the acceptance amount of swine manure that would result to the highest growth and survival of outplanted Yemane.

This was limited only to the growth and survival of outplanted Yemane seedlings as affected by varying rates of swine manure, namely: control, 0.3426 kg/tree, 0.6857 kg/tree and 1.0285 kg/tree under DMMMSU condition.

An area of 1,250 square meters with an average slope of 5%, planted with 1½-month-old Yemane seedlings was laid out using RCBD. The data gathered were the following: initial height and diameter, monthly height and diameter, final height and diameter and percentage survival of plants.

Results showed that seedlings fertilized with 0.3428 kg/tree had the highest monthly growth increment, biggest monthly average diameter, tallest, largest final diameter and highest percentage survival. ANOVA on all the parameters taken had no significant differences among treatments.

Seedlings applied with swine manure were quiet similar in growth and performance with the unfertilized seedlings.

Rosario, Joselito I. and Samsam Charito L. 1999. Effects of Cleaning and Fertilizer Application of Old Kauayan Tinik (Bambusa blumeana Schulted F.) Stands. BSc Thesis, Mariano Marcos State University, Batac, Ilocos Norte, Philippines

The study was conducted to determine the effects of cleaning or sanitation cutting on the shoot and culm production of old kauayan tinik clumps; and to evaluate the response of old kauayan tinik clumps to complete fertilizer application.

The study involved two factors: Factor A (A1 – no cleaning/sanitation cutting, and A2 – removal of over mature culms and spines up to 2m above the ground cleaning or sanitation cutting); and Factor B (B1 – no fertilizer, B2 – 1.0 kg 14-14-14/clumps, B3 – 2.0 kg 14-14-14 clumps, and B4 – 3.0 kg 14-14-14/clump). The study was laid out in a 2 x 4 factorial in Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications.

Results revealed no effect of cleaning on the number of shoots produced by old kauayan tinik clumps, except at 4MAF. Diameters of new culms were not likewise not effected by cleaning in all observation periods. The number and height of new culms were significantly affected by cleaning only on the first year of the study, at 2 and 4 months after fertilization, respectively.

Significant effect of complete fertilizer application on shoot production was observed only at 2 months after fertilization (year 1) and 4 months after fertilization (year 2) wherein the clumps fertilized with 3 kg 14-14-14 produced the highest number of shoots while the unfertilized clumps had the least. A significant interaction was also observed at 4 months after fertilization (year 2) which showed that the benefits of applying complete fertilizer (14-14-14) can be enhanced when he clumps are cleared.

Likewise, the varying levels of complete fertilizer had significant effect on the number of culms at 4 months after fertilization (year 1) and at 6 and 8 months after fertilization (year 2), diameter of new culms (in all but one observation period) and on the height of new culms (2 and 4 months after fertilization, year 1).

Setoza, Salome V.1982. The Performance of Yemane (Gmelina arborea Roxb) Seedlings as Affected by Different Kinds of Animal Manure. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Timber tree species, as other tree species, have varied response to fertilizer. Recent studies on fertilization of forest tree species show that this is due to the kind and level of fertilizer applied to tree species.

The study was conducted to investigate the response of yemane seedlings as applied with the different kinds of manure. The Randomized Complete Block Design was used with four treatments: T1-½ chicken dung and ½ garden soil, T2- ½ cow manure and ½ garden soil, T3-

½ swine and ½ garden soil; and T4- garden soil (control).

Based on the results, it was found out that the different treatments had no significant differences on the number of seeds germinated 30 days after sowing and on the average height increment of seeds germinated 90 days after sowing. However, on the number of seeds germinated 60 days after sowing and on the average diameter of seeds germinated 90 days after sowing, the different treatments showed significant differences because the animal manure mixed with garden soil were decomposed already. On the height of seedlings, treatments showed significant differences. This is attributed to the organic matter that increases the porosity, water retention of the soil

Sumibcay, Butch. 2002. The Effect of Mycorrhizal Inoculation and Farm Manure on the Growth and Survival of Outplanted Bitaog (Calophyllum inophyllum Linn.) Seedlings. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

In view of the economic value and importance of a tree species, it is necessary to plant more of its kind. However, there is still a problem on how to acclimatize the trees to the area where it is planted for its growth and survival. So, it is necessary to apply organic fertilizer like manures and mycovam to improve growth and survival.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of mycovam and farm manure on the growth and survival of outplanted bitaog seedlings.

Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications was used with the following treatments: T0 – control, T1 – without inoculation + cattle manure, T2 – with inoculation + cattle manure, T3 – without inoculation + carabao manure, T4 – with inoculation + cattle manure, T5 – without inoculation + chicken manure, T6 with inoculation + carabao manure and T7 – with inoculation + chicken manure.

The results revealed that the application of mycovam and animal manure did not significantly affect the monthly height, diameter and percentage survival 30 days after planting. All the plants, regardless of treatments, had 100% survival.

Inoculation using mycovam and farm manure did not affect the growth and survival of bitaog seedlings.

Talingdan, Marissa V. and Teofilo M. Mabanta. 1985. Performance of Outplanted Bagras (Eucalyptus deglupta Blume) Seedlings As Affected by Varying Rates of Cattle Manure Application. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Organic fertilizer application is proven to be one of the most effective growth regulators. It supplies the necessary nutrients by the plants which the soil lacks. Studies have shown that fertilizer application gave significant effects on bagras growth and development especially by using organic fertilizer.

This study was conducted to determine which of the varying rates of cattle manure applied would result to best growth performance of bagras seedlings. The treatments used were the following: A – control, B- 444 g cattle manure/seedlings, C- 888 g of cattle manure/seedlings and D – 1332 g of cattle manure/seedlings. The Randomized Complete Block Design was used in the lay-out.

Analysis of variance showed no significant differences on all the parameters used; therefore, fertilization of bagras with cattle manure may or may not be done.

Tolentino, Juan III D. 1996. Performance of Outplanted Guayabano (Annona muricata Linn.) Seedling as Affected by Decomposed Leaves of Selected Leguminous Species. BSC Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Because of the current high-cost of inorganic fertilizer, most of the farmers resort to the use of organic fertilizer to supplement the natural food supply in the soil to improve the growth and development of the plant.

This study aimed to determine the growth performance of outplanted guayabano seedlings as affected by decomposed leaves.

An area of about 270 square meters was laid out using the RCBD with three replications. The treatments used were as follows: T0 – control, T1 – 300 grams of decomposed leaves of kakawate/seedling, T2 – 233 grams of decomposed leaves of Ipil-ipil/seedling, and T3 – 372 grams of decomposed leaves of Anchoan dilau/seedling.

Results revealed that seedlings applied with decomposed leaves of Anchoan dilau had the highest average monthly height and diameter increment, control seedlings had the biggest diameter and seedling applied with decomposed leaves of kakawate had the highest percentage survival. Analysis of variance showed no significant differences among the treatment means.

Based on the results of the study, with or without organic fertilizer application is recommended since this resulted to non significant difference over the application of organic fertilizers to the outplanted seedlings.

Valdez, Delfina. 1996. Adaptability of Silky Oak (Grevillea robusta) As Affected by Different Organic Fertilizer. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Reforestation has been one of the primary thrusts of the national government in order to promote wholesome ecological atmosphere and at the same time avert the problem of siltation and sedimentation.

The study aimed to determine the adaptability of silky oak in La Union as affected by different organic fertilizers. The Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with 6 blocks was used in the study. The treatments used were: T0 - no organic fertilizer, T1 - 342 g of sagana 100, T2 - 600g durabloom, T3 -440 g lakas ani.

Results showed no significant differences on the percentage survival four months after application. Highly significant result was obtained, however on the height increments of seedlings after first, second, third, and fourth months and likewise on the diameter increments. Height and diameter after four months showed highly significant differences on their treatment means. Significant result was also obtained on the average number of branches four months after organic fertilizer application.

Sagana 100 must be used in fertilizing newly outplanted silky oak seedlings in order to obtain faster growth and development. In case where it is not available, durabloom can be a good substitute.

Yao, Calixto E. 1982. Effect of Fertilizer on the Growth and Survival of Mahogany (Sweitenia macrophylla King) Seedlings Under Grassland Condition. Compilation of Research Abstracts, UPLB College, Laguna, Philippines

Three levels of N(N1 = 1.8g N, N2 = 3.6g N and N3 = 5.4 g N) combined with 3.6 g K2O and 2.4 g P2O5 per tree were applied to one year-old newly planted mahogany seedlings under grassland conditions. The following parameters were assessed after six months: survival, height, diameter, dry weight, nutrient concentration and nutrient uptake. The possible effects of some soil properties and climatic factors on growth were assessed.

Seedling survival and nutrient concentration were not significantly affected by fertilizer treatments. The application of 3.6-2.4-36 g N- P2O5 -K2O per tree significantly increased height, diameter, dry weight and nutrient uptake by 196%, 258% and 192%, respectively. Treatment N- P2O5O per tree significantly increased height, diameter, dry weight and nutrient uptake by 146%, 211%, 258% and 192%, respectively. Treatment N1K increased growth but this was not significantly higher than control. Rates of N greater than 1.8 g per tree in combination with K only had a depressing effect on growth and nutrient uptake.

Regression analyses showed a positive quadratic response of height, diameter and dry weight with increasing levels of N when combined with P and K.

 

FORESTRY SURVEY

Bumatay, Jayson B. 2000. Socio-Economic Profile and Marketing of Bamboo-Based Enterprise in Ilocos Sur, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Bamboo is an excellent source of low-cost house construction materials, furnitures, handicrafts, pulp and paper, proquet, bamboo plywood and fishing gears. It serves as hedge against soil erosion, as forest cover, as an export winner, income- and employment-generator, and an excellent reforestation crop.

The study generally aimed to determine the extent of bamboo enterprises in Ilocos Sur. There were 13 respondents taken from the municipalities of Caoayan, Santiago, and Vigan, Ilocos Sur. The interview schedule was personally administered by the researcher. The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistical tools such as ranking and percentages.

Most of the different bamboo enterprises had been in the business for the past years and are producing bamboo furnitures such as tables, chairs and cabinets. Most of the raw materials came from Ilocos Sur, majority of which are kauayan tinik. The industry principally used seasoning in processing bamboo poles prior to its marketing to various bamboo products.         The industry applies varnishes and wood preservatives. Most of the workers employed had previous job-related experiences in bamboo production and were paid on a monthly basis.

Most bamboo products were sold by end-users in cash, either in the province or outside the province using a jeep or truck. The different bamboo enterprises encountered problems like poor marketing of products and stiff competition among products.

Hufalar, Emerald E. 2002. Survey of Wood Species and Their Uses in the Manufacture of Antique Products in Rosario, La Union. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Wood is the most commonly used and possibly the best suited material for making furniture and products. Although there are over a hundred different kinds that can be used for antique products, some woods have natural properties that make them superior to others.

This study sought to find out the wood species in the antique products manufacturing industry and how they are utilized.

Eleven antique product manufacturers were interviewed and analyzed using descriptive estimates such as number, percentage, mean and ranking.

Results of the study showed that most of the respondents were female, with an average age of 54-55 years old, married and almost half had gone to tertiary education. Molave and narra were the most premium common species used and procured mainly from farmers and small timber growers.

The products that were produced were tables, chairs, cabinets and wheel benches. Labor wages were based on daily basis. Most of the respondents used varnish, smoking, application of wood preservatives. Showroom or trade houses were their current marketing strategies. Lack of capital was the most common problem encountered.

Based from the results of the study, the premium species like molave and narra were the most commonly used species in the antique manufacturing industry bought within the province and nearby municipalities.

Lirios, Luisito G. 1984. An Evaluation of Natural Regeneration in a Benguet Pine (Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon) Stand After Logging in Abra. Compilation of Research Abstracts, UPLB College of Forestry, Laguna, Philippines

The study was conducted from November 1981 to November 1982 in a natural Benguet pine stand to assess the effectiveness of the seed tree method of fully regenerating natural Benguet pine stands after logging in the Cellophil Resources Corporation, Daguioman area, Abra; to determine the factor(s) significantly affecting the growth of natural regeneration in Benguet pine stands; and to determine the dominance/importance of plant species in association with natural Benguet pine regeneration and to relate these to the density and growth of the latter.

Thirty-two plots of five meters by five meters were established, where real growth series (initial and two remeasurement periods) and abstract time series data (three study areas with 5, 2, and 1 stand ages expressed in years after harvest during the initial measurement) for height diameter and density of natural Benguet pine regenerations were collected.

Vegetation analysis (harvest method) of plant species growing with the natural Benguet pine regenerations was conducted during and at the onset of the rainy season in the different study areas, including the Patteng area where the Benguet pines were not harvested.

Physiographic information, data on mother trees, light intensity, soil depth, and soil sampling for textural and chemical analysis were collected once, while soil sampling for moisture content determination were undertaken at monthly intervals. Likewise, rainfall was monitored daily in Lamunan for duration of 45 days.

Results of the stepwise regression procedure showed that 84% of the variation in density of natural Benguet pine regeneration was caused by variation in air temperature, rainfall, elevation, soil nitrogen, soil texture (clay and sand fraction), soil depth of a horizon, and soil moisture. About 50% of the variation in density was caused by air temperature, rainfall and elevation. About 86.78% of the variation in height of natural Benguet pine regeneration was caused by variation in clay content, soil depth, air temperature, soil pH, soil nitrogen and phosphorus, sand content of soil, soil moisture, rainfall, and light intensity. Clay content, soil depth of a horizon and air temperature accounted 54% of the variation in height of regenerations.

Likewise, 53% of the variation in diameter of natural Benguet pine regeneration was caused by variation in soil clay, depth of a horizon and air temperature. The addition of other variables like rainfall, soil pH, nitrogen content, phosphorus, potassium, moisture and sand content, slope of regeneration plot and light intensity increased the coefficient of determination to 82.27%.

Vegetation analysis showed that Themeda triandra was the dominant species growing in association with natural Benguet pine regeneration in all study areas. In addition, natural Benguet pine regeneration had been observed to exhibit better growth (diameter and height) when growing with thick growth of grasses. However, density of regeneration in these areas was observed to be very low.

It is concluded that the seed tree method is effective in fully regenerating Benguet pine stands after logging in the Cellophil Resources Corporation concession, Daguioman area based on the growth of natural Benguet pine regeneration, the presence of more than 2,500 regenerations per hectare of more or less uniform distribution over the logged-over area.

Moldez, Inocentes V. 1990. Ecological Profiling of Kennon Road Reforestation Project, Tuba, Benguet. MSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

Attention has recently been focused on the dynamic, albeit, environmentally destructive, changes brought about by interactions between man and ecosystem.

The study intended to find out the physical, biological and demographic characteristics of the Kennon Road reforestation project.

The parameters considered were: physiography, soil, vegetation, hydro-meteorology, nursery and plantation operations, and socio-economic.

Under physical characteristics, project has topography of 74.78% severely sloping and is predominantly steeply dissected to mountainous. Its soil physical properties shows that the area is78% deep (over 145cm) and is therefore highly drained. Soil texture is sandy loam. The chemical analysis shows that the soil pH is generally acidic. Organic matter content is high in Alnus and mahogany plantations but lower in narra and yemane plantations. Soil nitrogen ranged from 0.043% to 0.3285% while phosphorus is from 2.81 to 27.03 ppm. On the other hand, potassium ranged from 0.07 to 0.46 me/100gm.

The biological characterization of the species planted in the project is Narra, teak, mahogany, ipil-ipil, yemane, molave, mango, avocado, banana, and the Benguet Pine. Associated plant species found in the area were cogon, runo, bikal, bamboo, sangilo, and others. The diameter ranged from 0.9 to 11.3cm and the height growth from 0.85 to 109.8m for a period of 11 years. In the nursery and plantation operations, the estimated cost of seedling production was P0.92/seedling, while overall nursery operations cost per hectare is P2, 300. Average cost of site preparation, handling of seedlings, and outplanting with 2 m x 2 m spacing was P1855 per hectare. Maintenance and protection cost was P2,181 per hectare. Average survival percentage is 10.14%.

The overall nursery and plantations cost per hectare was P11,713.00 which since not including infrastructure cost was lower than the DENR cost estimates of establishment, protection and maintenance of a one-hectare plantation.

Of the 10-year period record, the annual average total rainfall was 3651.73 mm. The monthly average atmospheric temperature was 24.4oC (maximum) and 15.2oC (minimum) in the 1979-1988 record. Relative humidity ranged from a low of 84.8% to a high of 88.6%.

In the socio-economic characterization, the forest occupants were mostly Ibaloys and the rest were Kankanaeys, Kalahan, Ifugaos, Ilocanos, and Pangasinensis. To supplement income from agriculture, 37% of the household were engaged in gold panning. The majority of the respondents perceived that forest is very important in many ways, since, it is a source of fuelwood, water, of housing materials, and is necessary for erosion control. The respondents did not differ significantly in their responses on the operation, management, development, and benefits of the forest development programs.

The hypothesis was rejected on evidence of greater value of the Chi-square X 2 than at the values of 5% level of significance among the variables: programs of the area, benefits offered by the program, employment, participation in the program, and operation and management. The hypothesis was accepted on recommendation for more effective reforestation program and assessment in terms of success.

Environmentally, 60% of the respondents noted the deterioration of farm land productivity, due to soil degradation, and pests and diseases. Further, they opined that the diminishing forest stand affects the weather.

Naanep, Alejandro Jr. 2001. Survey of Wood Species Used and Processes in the Woodcarving Industry in La Union. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Wood work is one of the largest and oldest industries in the world. It is divided into the major traders of the carpentry, cabinet making, pattern making carving, and wood finishing. It seems that wood carving is a profitable venture but there is an apparent scarcity in the supply of raw materials.

This study was conducted to recognize the demographic profile of the respondents in the woodcarving industry and be familiar with the species commonly used in wood carving, and how they treat the wood used on wood carving, and to determine the cost and return analysis of wood carving industry in La Union.

The data were obtained from 20 respondents. All the responses were consolidated, categorized, averaged, and tabulated. Descriptive statistics was used in the study supplemented by number, percentage, mean and ranking.

Sixty-five percent of the respondents were still in active work force, aged 41-50 years with 100 percent married, 60 percent female, and 40 percent male owners of the wood carving industry in La Union. Ninety percent of the wood carvers were using acacia as the most in demand wood species. All the respondents used tape measure, chisel and sand paper for their products. Majority of the wood carvers produced eagle (75%) as the most produced products. The average gross income from wood carving by the wood carvers was P2,956.16 and the net income was P2,053.33.

Puntawe, N.F. 2001. Photosynthetic Studies of Selected Mangroves. BSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

Mangroves or swamps are one of the major types of forest. It occupies a relatively unique ecological niche. Compared with other plants, the mangroves ecosystem is considerably known to be complex as it is affected by changes in tidal levels, which primarily contribute to the physical and chemical variations in its environment. In photosynthesis, any plant apparently follows a certain carbon metabolism pathway. It could be through a Calvin cycle, C4 pathway or a Crassulacea Acid Metabolism (CAM). Several studies on carbon metabolism lead to a delineation of C3, C4, and CAM features in plants.

The study was conducted to determine the carbon dioxide (CO2) fixation pathway of five mangrove species, namely: Avicennia lanata, Avecennia alba, Bruguira cylindrica, Rhizophora mucronata, and Sonneratia alba. Anatomically, these five species closely resembled structures of a C3 plant as observed in the smaller chlorenchyma cells differentiated into palisade and spongy layers, diffused distribution of starch in the mesophyll region, greater interveinal distance, and absence of Kranz-type anatomy. Spongy appearance of S. alba due to large water-storage tissues in the mesophyll region is one feature of Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) leaves.

Physiologically, CO2 and light compensation points were predominantly low, an indicator of C4 characteristic. The C4 syndrome was consistently observed in the increased net photosynthetic rate with increasing temperature as evidently noted with the increased volume of O2 evolved and CO2 uptake of the five mangrove species.

The five mangrove spp. studied were namely: Avicennia alba, Avicennia lanata, Bruguiera cylindrical, Rhizophora mucronata, and Sonneratia alba which all resemble structurally to C3 plants. Starch is uniformly present in all the mesophyll cells and no indication of Kranz anatomy was observed in any of the specimens. However, Sonneratia alba showed a slight structural variation by having large chlorenchyma cells with centrally located water-storage tissues. Likewise, it exhibited a considerable degree of succulence with high water content, a feature of Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) leaves.

Quiñones, S. 1985. Survey and Identification of Entomogenous Microorganisms Associated with Forest Insect Pests. Compilation of Research Abstracts, FORI, NRCP, UPLB College, Laguna, Philippines

Survey and collection of insect pests were conducted in four areas, namely: Magat Forest Research Center, Diadi, Nueva Viscaya, BFD Pine Plantation, Bo. Lingas, Baay-Licuan, Bangued, Abra; UP Forest Reservation in Mt. Makiling, College, Laguna and Asean-New Zealand Afforestation Project (ANZAP), Bigbiga, Mayantoc, Tarlac. Suspected insect pests had diseased as well as healthy ones which were brought to FORI central laboratory for microscopic examination and isolation of associated microorganisms.

Physiological studies as well as pathogenecity tests of the isolated microorganisms were conducted to determine which among the isolates were pathogenic on the insect pests.

From Pinus caribaea in Diadi, N. Viscaya, bark beetles (Ips calligraphus Germar) were collected, while from P. caribaea in ANZAP, Mayantoc, Tarlac, larvae of shoot moth (Dioctria rubella Hamps) were collected. From Tectona grandis in Diadi, N. Viscaya, larvae of leaf fodder and defoliator (Cnaphalocrosis medinalis Guenee) were collected while on the same forest species from ANZAP, Mayantoc, Tarlac, larvae of leaf

skeletonizer (Pyracasta sp.) were collected. From A. falcataria in Diadi, N. Viscaya, larvae of leaf defoliator (Spodopeta sp.) were collected. In BFD pine plantation in Bagued, Funiculosum, Penicillium, canescens, P. janthinellum, P. daleae, Trichoderma harzianum, and Botryodiplodia theobromae. One of the bacterial isolates was Serratia marcescens. The other one was gram-cocci.

The fungi isolated from Spodopterra larvae collected from Diadi were Fusarium semitectum, Penicillium canescens, P. nigricans, Aspergillus clavatus, and A. sp. The bacterial isolates belong to the Bacillus group.

The fungi isolated from Cnaphalocrosis larvae were Penicillium sp., P. canescens and Botryodiplodia theobromae while the bacterium was Bacillus thuringiensis.

The fungi isolated from Ips beetles collected from Abra were: Fusarium semitectum, Aspergillus niger, and Curvularia lunata. The bacterial isolate belongs to the Bacillus group.

The fungi isolated from shoot moth larvae were; Penicillum negricans, Aspergillus flavus, and A. niger. The bacterial isolates were Serratia marcescens and Bacillus sp.

The fungi isolated from larvae of Araecerus fasciculatus were Fusarium moniliforme, Asperrgillus flavus, A. niger and Aspergillus sp. The fungi isolated from shoot moth larvae collected from ANZAP, Tarlac were Aspergillus niger, Hyalodendron sp., Phomopsis sp. and Macrophama sp. The bacterial isolates were Serratia marcescens and Bacillus sp. Fusarium semitectum was obtained.

Based on pathogenecity tests conducted, Aspergillus flavus, Bacillus sp. and Serratia marcescens were pathogenic on shoot moth larvae collected from BFD Pine Plantation, Abra, while Aspergillus niger, Bacillus sp. and Serratia marcescens were pathogenic on shoot moth larvae collected from ANZAP, Tarlac. On the other hand, Aspergillus flavus, Fusarium stoveri, Penicillium fumiculosum and Paecilomyces fumososeies were pathogenic on Ips beetles. Two isolates of Aspergillus flavus were pathogenic on Araecerus fasceculatus larvae.

 

FORESTRY MANAGEMENT AND PRACTICES

Contaoi, Danilo A. 1995. Resistance of Some Indigenous Tree Species to Termites Infestation. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Woods of tropical countries with high moisture levels are prone to fungal deterioration and subterranean termites. The durability of wood is determined by its resistance to a variety of insects and decay fungi or by treatments instituted by the end user.

The study was conducted to evaluate the natural resistance of akleng parang, banaba, kakawate, talisay, and teak against termites infestation, within a period of three months. One hundred sixty wood samples, 32 for each of the species were used. The study was laid out following the 5 x 2 factorial in Randomized Complete Block Design with four replications. Wood treatments used (Factor B) were: B1 - without bark and B2 - with bark.

In terms of the combined effect between the factor species and wood treatments (interaction effect), the result was not significant. The extents of damage by termites after three months on the various treatments were comparable.

Telan, Ivan F. and A.T Gonzales. 2000. Botanical Fungicides to Control Mulberry Root-rot. Institutional Research, DMMMSU-SRDI, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Thirty five plant spp. were collected and bioassayed in vitro for fungicidal efficacy against Fusarium sp., the causal pathogen of mulberry root-rot. Eight species showed zones of inhibition but Allium sativum (garlic), Pseudocalyma alliacium (garlic vine) and Impatiens balsamina (kamantigui) were found promising and were tested in vivo as treatments on cuttings before planting in Fusarium-infested soil. Cuttings treated with A. alliacium had the lowest disease incidence at 50% followed by P. alliacum at 20% amd I. balsamina at 25%. Benomyl, the control chemical, had 20%, the same as P. alliacium while steriled distilled water control was 45%. All saps separately mixed with kerosene had much higher disease incidence.

Valdez, Romeo S. 1980. Fire Ecology Study: To Burn or Not to Burn in Grasslands. Compilation of Research Abstracts, UPLB College of Forestry, Laguna, Philippines

Soil erosion and surface run-off are affected by time of burning. Early burning during the onset of the dry season can provide enough vegetation cover and elicit proper soil conditions which lessen soil erosion and surface run-off during the wet season. Burning during the middle or late dry season gave the highest losses in nutrients especially phosphorous and nitrogen due to increased soil erosion and run-off. These differences in soil erosion and nutrient surfaces run-off losses are enhanced if the precipitation intensity is less than 39 mm/day. It is possible to identify erosion prone areas in the Philippines if: a) fire-prone areas are delineated; b) rate of regrowth of mature grasses can be predicted; c) rainfall intensity patterns can be mapped; and d) soil types can be delineated.

Recovery time of burned areas reckoned in terms of the “normalization” of soil microorganism population is between 2-3 weeks only. Some fungi and mite species can be used as indicators of burning.

The results also indicated that if burning is practiced, it must be used as a tool for the introduction of reforestation or pasture species. Late burning done toward the onset of the rainy season is most preferred for the over seeding of Stylosanthes or other desirable forage species.

Burning when practiced alone results in short tem gains in livestock production but long term, losses are in terms of enhanced soil erosion and soil surface run-off and set backs in reforestation gains.

The sociological dimension of burning must also be studied to determine the reason why man burns, the time of the year when he prefers to burn and the advantages he gets from burning from his own point of view.

Yamaguchi, Hiroaki, A. Nobuchi, E. D. de Guzman and R.E. dela Cruz. 1978. The Biology of Ips Calligraphus (GERMER) (Coleoptera) and its Role in the Deterioration of Benguet Pine (pinus Kesiya Royle ex. Gordon). Compilation of Research Abstracts, UPLB College of Forestry, Laguna, Philippines

This investigation reports on the taxonomy morphology, geographical distribution, host range, life history, habit and natural enemies of Ips calligraphus and the role played by this beetle on the deterioration of Benguet pine.

Ips calligraphus has several synonyms e.g. Bostrichus exesus Say. B. chloroticus de Jean, B. conformis De Jean, Tomicus praemorsus Eichhoff and Ips ponderosae Swaine. The morphology of the adult beetle is described. The males are readily distinguished from females by a ventral notch on the large declivital spins. Under laboratory conditions, one generation (egg to adult) may occur within 15-17 days but the adults may take another 10 days to emerge. It takes about 25 days between initial attacks of parent and the emergence of progenies. In Baguio, one generation may take place within 35 days so that 10 or more generations may occur in a year.

Ips calligraphus is polygamous. One male may fertilize an average of 4 females. About 4 eggs galleries per nuptial chamber were commonly observed. Number of egg galleries is related to gallery length and attack densities. Number of egg galleries per 0.1m2 of bark ranged from 33-119 and the average length of galleries decreased with increasing number of egg galleries. Number of galleries with no egg niches increased with higher attack densities but the number of galleries with egg niches averaged about 60 per 0.1m2

The beetle prefers newly felled trees and slashed. It is capable of breeding in trunks and limbs of healthy trees. Larvae and adults feed on the fresh phloem material. Several natural enemies were found in the nest of Ips calligraphus. These natural enemies may feed on the young broods and adults of the beetle.

The roles played by Ips in pine deterioration and some suggested control procedure are hereby presented.

 

SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT AND PRACTICES

Abad, Samuel B. 1994. Critical Analysis of Contract Reforestation in Eastern Pangasinan. MSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

Contract reforestation is one of the multi-faceted strategies of the Philippine government to bring back the once-verdant forested hills and mountains of the Philippine archipelago.

The study analyzed the contract reforestation in Eastern Pangasinan using inspection, charting and mapping reports and personal interviews with DENR personnel. Recommendations related to the following areas: site selection, nursery activities, plantation activities, administration and supervision, and monitoring and evaluation were also noted.

The total area under the contract reforestation scheme was 3547 hectares covering seven municipalities. The scheme involved 211 contractors, 124 of which were family contractors awarded 615 hectares; 84 were community contractors awarded 2532 hectares; and two were corporate contractors awarded 200 hectares.

The type of planting stocks used was primarily bare root for G. arborea, potted seedling for P. indicus, and wildling for C. Merrillii and C. ornatus var. Philippinensis.

The average survival rate of Gmelina arborea Roxb. was 56.44%; Pterocarpus indicus Willd, 79.20%; Calamus merillii Becc., 40.56%; and Calamus ornatus var. philippinensis Blume ex Shultz, 59.10%. Their overall rate of 58.55 % is below the national acceptable survival rate requirement of 80%.

Recommendations include awarding contracts foremost to local upland farmers, with the active involvement of the CENRO; hiring persons whose allegiance to the government is not questionable; insuring that the seeds are obtained from superior mother trees; indicating specific objective(s) of the reforestation; including pest and disease monitoring in the protection and maintenance activities; hiring project leaders who are technically competent and improving their technical skill through trainings or seminars; and doing away with compromises by making the monitoring teams be composed of a composite group.

Agustin, J.T. 1992. Effects of kakawate (Gliricidia sepium Jacq. Steud.) Contour Hedgerows on the Rate of Soil Erosion and Crop Yield of Upland Rice on Hillside Farm. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

The general objective of this study was to determine the effectiveness of kakawate contour hedgerows of various alley widths in controlling soil erosion and increasing yield of alley-grown upland rice on hillside farm.

The treatments considered in the study were 2m and 4m alley widths and a control (no kakawate hedgerows) on a 100 slope farm. Each treatment was replicated three times for a total of nine erosion plots.

The growth and survival of kakawate hedgerows were not significantly affected by alley width but numerically, the hedgerow trees at the 4m alley width had better growth performance than those at the 2 m alley width. However, the latter attained a higher percentage of survival than the former due to the attack of subterranean termites.

Alley width had no significant effect on the total pruning biomass in kg fresh weigth/6m and in tons/ha of the hedgerow trees. The hedgerows in the 4m alley width numerically attained higher yield in terms of leaves and stems (green and brown) production in kg fresh weigth/6m than those with the 2m alley width. However, in tons/ha basis, the 2m alley width had higher above ground biomass yield than those of the 4 m alley width. This could be due to higher tree population density at the 2 m alley width (23,226 trees/ha) as compared with the 4m alley width which had 13,091 trees/ha.

In terms of dry foliage and green stem yields of the hedgerow trees and their nitrogen equivalents, a total of 17.86 tons/ha was obtained from the 2m alley width and 11.30 tons/ha for the 4 m alley width. The total nitrogen equivalents were 429.17 kg/ha and 252.39 kg/ha for the 2m and 4m alley widths respectively.

After harvest, the 2m alley width had the least amount of organic matter depletion followed by the 4m alley width and the control in that order. In terms of N level, no loss of N was observed in the 2m alley width but the 4m alley width and the control had N losses of 4.14 percent and 26.92 percent, respectively.

During the first cropping in June to September 1989, the treatments had no significant differences in reducing the amount of sheet erosion. But during the second cropping in June to September 1990, the 2m and 4m alley widths attained a significantly lower erosion rates in mm plot and tons/ha than the control. No significant differences, however, were observed between the 2 m and 4m alley widths. Also evident was the formation of micro-terraces at the 2m and 4m alley widths during the second year of hedgerow establishment.

 

The yield of upland rice was not significantly affected by alley width. However, the 2m and 4m alley widths with their prunings applied as mulch/green manure increased yield of upland rice by as much as 5.78 sacks (38.24%) and 9.11 sacks (60.29%), respectively, over the control.

Alcasid, Godofredo N. Jr. 1978. Soil Conservation Measures in Rainfed Areas. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C. Philippines

The paper speaks of the “rain-fed farm” farmers’ problems and its present situation with regards to the transfer of new technology programs and the need for such transfer. The author enumerated the different farm-to-farm soil conservation activities as practiced by these rainfed farmers, which can be employed either singly or in combination. Also presented are the three current programs for rainfed areas in the country. These are the Upland Area Integrated Development Project, Soil Conservation Guided Farm and the Water Impounding Project. The first one is concerned with the proper land use in the uplands, while the second developed and agreed and ground implemented farm plan between the farmer cooperators and the Bureau of Soil representative, and the last one is a water-impounding project directed towards a nationwide implementation.

Almojuela, Gloria A. 1982. The Study on the Potential of Selected Grasses as Watershed Cover. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Adopted grasses are now generally recognized as the chief tools in soil improvement and conservation. It was their function not only to grow on what was left next succession of the soil depleting crops.

The study was conducted to determine which of the different species of grasses are best adopted as watershed cover and find the interaction effect of grasses in that watershed. The species of grasses were planted in the plots. Treatments were laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications. The study was conducted at BLISS site, DMMMSU-NLUC, Bacnotan, La Union. The treatments used were: Napier, alabang x, Para grass, Setaria and Kennedy grass. The data were analyzed using Analysis of variance and computed and comparison among treatment using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test.

The result of the study revealed that any grasses used in the study can be adopted as watershed cover.

Andres, Celestino F. et al. 1984. Farming Systems Approach to Soil Erosion Control and Management. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

The lack of sufficiently flat lands and the need to intensify food production have forced farmers to use the slopelands for agricultural production, which further led to the rapid denudation of many hillside areas. Soil erosion in these areas was caused by surface run-off.

There are two methods of controlling soil erosion by water, mechanical and agronomic measures. Agronomic measures is more advantageous than mechanical because it is less costly, requires no special equipment or machinery, needs less maintenance and easily incorporated into an existing farming system while mechanical measure is rarely effective without agronomic measures to support them.

The conservation-effective farming systems are corn/Leucaena, agroforestry (tree-based), legume-based pasture livestock, tillage and cropping. Corn/Leucaena farming system is an appropriate approach to the efficient and effective management of hilly lands where soil erosion and degradation are serious problems.

 Agroforestry or the growing of perennial trees and shrubs with ephemeral food plants protect the other cultivated plants and soil from the strong impact of rainfall and supply fruits/shoots as food for people and livestock. Constraints to its adoption include: (1) farmers in the hilly lands do not own the land they till, hence, do not have a strong incentive to adopt erosion control measures, and (2) landholdings are highly fragmented and small, impractical to plant forest trees for it reduces the area for food crop production. Legume-based pasture livestock is a strategy for marginal erosion-susceptible areas because it provides continuous cover protecting soil against erosion,

Tillage is considered a sub-system of any farming system that significantly influences the magnitude of soil erosion. Cropping such as multiple cropping, intercropping or mixed cropping, relay cropping and rotation cropping minimizes soil erosion and offers a better and continuous vegetative cover which protects soil against direct impact of raindrop.

With all of the above-mentioned conservation-effective farming system, there are still areas needed for research under local (Philippine) conditions. These are: (a) development of acceptable agroforestry farming systems, where physical and social problems involved demand that research cover a much wider front than the technical aspects; (b) legume-based pasture/livestock farming system research; (c) evaluation of tillage techniques as sub-system of a given farming system; and (d) cropping systems management research.

Antolin, Nelly C. and P. Veracion. 1995. Effects of Alley Cropping on Some Hydrologic Data and Soil Properties of Upland Farms in Bacnotan, La Union. MSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

Agroforestry has the most apparent potential in upland areas where monocultural agriculture or forestry may not be most feasible or desirable. Thus with the system and management practices associated with it, farmers should strive to attain maximum efficiency of inputs, while maintaining soil productivity in a sustainable manner.

The effects of alley cropping on some hydrologic and soil properties were evaluated in an existing 4-year old kakawate hedgerows in the upland farms in Bacnotan, La Union.

The experimental lay-out was split plot in Randomized Complete Block Design. The treatments included hedgerows as mainplots and different alley crops as subplots.

Based on the findings, surface runoff and sediment yield were reduced with kakawate hedgerows and agricultural crops. Positive and significant correlation existed between surface runoff, and rainfall and sediment yield.

Infiltration rate and green biomass yield of kakawate hedgerows did not show any significant differences between the control and the other treatments.

Soil moisture content was significantly affected by the agricultural crops. Control had the lowest moisture content, followed by bush sitao that had no significant difference than other alley crops.

Most of the soil properties declined, the control did not show any significant difference from the other treatments.

Yield of peanut with kakawate hedgerows was significantly lower than that without kakawate hedgerows. Mungbean and bush sitao had no significant difference in yield.

Peanut planted as monocrop had the highest net income of P27, 310.00, followed by mungbean planted as monocrop of P23,343.20. Peanut and mungbean planted as alley crops had net incomes of P7, 565 and P8,577.00 respectively. Hence, these are recommended as alley crops.

Apalla, Virgilio Jr. et al. 2003. Comparative Analysis of Soil Vegetation Features of the Muyung Forest in Relation to Streamflow Discharge. BSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

The terraced rice structures which are supported by a sophisticated and complex indigenous irrigation system are crumbling due to lack of water resulting to low productivity. Cracking of the terraces occur as an effect of Muyung mismanagement. Continuous deforestation has resulted in denudation and eventual destruction of the Muyung as a watershed, detrimentally limiting water supply that sustain growth of the rice plants and maintain paddy and dike structure. As a result, irrigated areas in the terraces have substantially decreased over the years.

This study was conducted to compare the vegetation composition and soil characteristics of the Muyung sites in relation to its carrying capacity to discharge water available for the rice terraces or payoh.

Vegetation analysis showed that the dominant over storey spp. in two study sites differed. Nagacordan site was dominated by dalakan (Lithocarpus spp.) putukan (Physalis angulata), atadong (Dacrycarpus stawa), Bischofia javanica, and hawili (Ficus ulmifolia) while in putukan site 2, alimit (Uvaria sorzogonensis), kuldadannum, alagge (Lithocarpus sp.) balete (Ficus stipulosa) and putukan (Physalis angulata) were the dominant vegetation.

Storey vegetation in both sites had different spp. composition except for rono, which was common to both areas. Euphorbia hirta, fern (Diplazalum esculentum) pikpiko, rono (Miscantus sinensis), coffee (Coffea arabica), ulay, peycao and wild flower (Carcuma domestica) were the dominant species in site 2. The presence of that dominant overstorey and under storey spp. in the two sites could have enhanced the stream flow discharge.

Regarding the soil properties, site 1 had a texture of loamy sand and sandy loam in site 2. A pH value of 5.7 was obtained in Nagadacan and 5.9 in Putukan. Organic matter and moisture content in Nagadacan study area was 4.04%, and 11.82%, while that in Putukan, 3.98% and 6.99% respectively. The pH values and the organic matter content showed no statistical difference while the moisture content reflected highly significant differences in the two study areas.

When moisture content was regressed with streamflow discharge, irrespective of the site, it showed a highly significant correlation which means that a unit increases in moisture content results to a corresponding increase of 0.8152m3 in streamflow discharge.

Moisture and organic matter content in Nagadacan soil showed a highly significant correlation compared to that in Putukan. A greater streamflow discharge of 0.068m3/sec was obtained in Nagacordan compared to that in Putukan which had only 0.012m3/sec. These streamflow discharge values in the two sites were noted to be significantly different.

The researcher recommended that the top dominant spp. in the two sites could be potential species to be planted in the Muyung to enrich the vegetation sp. in some open areas.

Baniaga, Valentino M. 1999. Physical and Socio-economic Characterization of Buyog, Pinget, Baguio City. MSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

Forest watersheds which are a diverse and dense composition of rich natural resources play a significant role in urban and industrial development. They need immediate and wise utilization to attain economic stability.

The watershed has a slope ranging from 70% to 80%, belongs to the first climatic type, and has a mean relative humidity ranging from 85.2 to 90.3%. It has an average monthly rainfall of 291.7 mm, and an atmospheric temperature ranging from 17.0 to 22.60.

About 50% or 10 ha of the total 19.9 ha area of the watershed is forested, the average water yield is 133 gals/min. The soil is moderately acidic. Barangay Pinget has 3,875 permanent residents, coming mostly from the Cordillera provinces.

In line with said postulate, a study was conducted with the following objectives: to find out the physical and biological characteristics of the watershed and socio-economic profile of the residents; to identify major resources and environmental problems; to identify existing land uses of the watershed; to determine the degree of seriousness of the effects of the major problem; to determine the effectiveness of the applied management strategies; and to determine the priority management schemes and development options.

The environmental problems threatening the watershed are squatting/illegal occupancy, kaingin-making or slash-and-burn agriculture, timber poaching/tree cutting, forest fires, waste disposal, and stray animals. The depletion/denudation of the watershed is mainly caused by squatting. The main causes of these problems are landlessness, which is triggered by the rapid increase of population, and lack of education on the importance of the watershed.

The very effective management strategies are having reforestation/tree planting activities, and constructing fences to safeguard the watershed from squatting, encroachment, forest fires and tree cutting.

Recommendations include ensuring administrative support, vis-à-vis provisions for sufficient budget and adequate number of manpower or human resources; emphasizing discipline among the people; strictly implementing forest laws, rules, regulations, and policies controlling/prohibiting illegal or tree cutting; stopping/prohibiting kaingin-making; and involving the utmost participation of the community.

Banlawe, N.V. 1985. The Effects of Continuous Crop Cover Via Multiple Cropping on Soil Erosion in Hilly Areas. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

A field experiment was conducted at Cabigan, Aborlan, Palawan from July 1984 to February 1985 to evaluate the effect of continuous crop cover via multiple cropping in minimizing soil erosion in hilly areas, the growth and field performance of the individual crop component under each cropping pattern, and the productivity and profitability of each cropping pattern.

Results of the study showed that crop cover significantly reduced run-off and soil loss. However, the effect of crop cover depending upon the growth stages of the crops and the extent of their foliage development were not significant. Cassava intercropped with peanut followed by mungbean (T7) and cassava intercropped with peanut followed by corn (T10) was found effective in preventing soil erosion. These treatments had an accumulative soil loss of 11.97 and 13.65 t/ha, respectively. These treatments, T7 and T10 were followed in decreasing order of effectiveness by the pure stand of rice (T5), cassava intercropped with sweet potato followed by peanut (T9), pure stand of mungbean (T3), pure stand of sweet potato as compared with other intercrops of cassava. Its dry weight and yield were not significantly affected whether planted at the same time or at a later stage of growth of the cassava. It was not advisable, however, to plant corn, rice, and mungbeans as intercrops at the later stage of growth of the cassava, especially when nearing dry season. The plants cannot tolerate the shading from the cassava plants.

Among the cropping patterns tried in this study, cassava intercropped with peanut gave the highest production per unit land area and the highest net return per hectare.

Bato, Luciano C. 2000. Effects of Hedgerows on Surface Run-off, Soil Erosion and Food Crop Production. MSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

The on-site effects of soil erosion usually include loss of nutrients from eroded topsoil. This loss could result to abrupt decline of soil fertility and thus to a low agricultural production.

The study determined the effect of different vegetative hedges on surface run-off, soil erosion and vegetable crop yield; the effect of established hedgerows on air and soil temperature, pH, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium; the survival and mortality of the experimental hedgerows; and litterfall production rate of decomposition. The study site was within the degraded upland farms of Taloy Norte, Tuba, Benguet with a mean elevation of 860 meters above sea level and a slope gradient ranging from 30 to 40 percent.

The different hedgerows planted in the study area were lantana, trumpet flower, sunflower and binatang hambog.

In 1993, effecting the highest surface runoff and soil erosion was binatang hambog; the highest vegetable crop yield was trumpet flower; and the highest litterfall was sunflower.

In 1994, effecting the highest surface runoff and soil erosion was binatang hambog; the highest crop yield decomposition rate and sprout production was trumpet flower; and the highest litterfall was sunflower.

The effects of different hedgerows planted were effective measures for degraded upland farms. After one year or more, soil movement/loss was minimized.

Botengan, Norma. 1999. Soil Fertility Degradation in Two Selected Cropping System Under Barangay Pico Conditions, La Trinidad Benguet. BSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

The prevailing fertility levels and the state of soil fertility degradation in two selected agricultural soils were studied through chemical analysis. The agricultural soils were taken from monocropping and crop rotation system while non agricultural soil was utilized as a basis of comparison.

Over-all values of pH, organic matter, nitrogen and cation exchange capacity were highly significant (lower) in the soil from agricultural soil than in the non-agricultural soil. Furthermore, the soils from crop rotation had significantly higher values in pH than that of the soils from monocropping (t-test).

The soil from crop rotation recorded significantly higher values in phosphorus and potassium compared to that from monocropping, that crop rotation practice leads to a better fertility status in terms of phosphorus and potassium contents.

The level of degradation in pH organic matter content was highly significant in both cropping

systems. In the crop rotation practiced, the level of degradation in cation exchange capacity was significant.

The result signifies that soil degradation persisted in both cropping systems; however, the extent was generally higher in monocropping system than that of crop rotation system, specifically, the level of degradation in pH which recorded highly significant than that of the crop rotation. Lower values of the above soil chemical parameters were attributed to the continuous utilization and indiscriminate management of the soil.

The obtained data on phosphorus and potassium content of soils under agricultural setting registered significantly higher values than those of non-agricultural soils, however, falling closely with in the normal size range for phosphorus (15-50 ppm) and potassium (200-2000 ppm). These findings could be attributed to intensive and indiscriminate application of inorganic or commercial potash and phosphates.

Buyatan, Edgardo P. 1995. Assessment of Soil and Water Conservation Measures in Busol Watershed. MSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

Soil and water conservation and management particularly in watershed areas significantly improves the income of farmer and greatly promotes the welfare of the environment a balanced ecosystem.

The study assessed the soil and water conservation measures established and constructed at Busol watershed reservation, identified problems encountered during the implementation of the rehabilitation program, assessed the accomplishments of the newly created Busol Task Force, and come up with appropriate measures for the improvement and protection of the watershed.

In the rehabilitation program, 11 contractors were awarded with vegetative/biological contract and eight contractors were awarded with structural contract. A total of 346,875 assorted seedlings were propagated and raised in the nurseries and 65.75 hectares were planted to Benguet pine (Pinus kesiya), Alnus (Alnus maritime), Bagras (Eucalyptus deglupta). Around 2,778 cubic meters of structural measures were installed for five years under the structural contract.

Problems identified were presence of squatters, annual occurrences of forest fires, presence of illegal loggers, timber poachers, and kaingin makers. In addition are existing environmental condition of the watershed which is characterized by the occurrence of high rainfall intensity or heavy rains, landslides, gullies and other forms of soil erosion which caused damage or washed out 60 cubic meters of constructed loose rock Checkdams.

Recommendations and suggestions include ring weeding, applying of fertilizers, intensive monitoring and constant patrolling to protect the established vegetative cover and additional construction of structures in the watershed, and continuously encouraging the Busol watershed settlers to directly and positively participate in the protection of the entire watershed area in order to sustain production of products and goods and to ensure a steady supply of water.

Cabanilla, Juneclene D. et al. 2002. Soil Erosion Susceptibility Classes of Four Land Uses Within the Busol Watershed. BSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

Soil erosion has been long recognized as a major hindrance to the increased agricultural production in many areas in the Philippines.

The study aimed to determine the soil erosion susceptibility of Busol Watershed Reservation. The following classifications were used in the study: slightly susceptible, moderately susceptible and highly susceptible.

Existing data about the major factors influencing soil erosion in the area were reviewed and data such as maps together with some supporting literatures were obtained from relative agencies. The gathered data served as basis for the classification of the susceptibility classes of the four land uses within the area of study.

Soil properties such as depth of soil solum and textual classification of the soil prevailing within the four land uses were analyzed and found to pose potentially slight soil erosion susceptibility only.

It was found out that the soil prevailing in the area had a depth of soil solum greater than 50 cm and had a clay loam textual class considered to be slightly erodible.

Soil erosion susceptibility based on single factor effect was determined by comparing existing data with the degrees of soil erosion susceptibility classifications for the land use, soil type and rainfall. Based on vegetative cover, the agricultural lands were classified as highly susceptible, and open/grassland areas, as moderately susceptible.

On the other hand, the forest and the plantation were categorized as slightly susceptible. As regards to the influence of rainfall, the watershed area was classified as having Type I rainfall with a monthly average, during the rainy months, of 548.58 mm. Hence, the area exhibited a high susceptibility to erosion.

Considering only the influence of slope, 10.86% (36.59 ha) of the entire area exhibited a slight susceptibility to erosion (0-10% slope); approximately 30.72% of the area (103.52ha), was moderately susceptible (10-20% slope) and 58.3% (196.74 ha) of the area was largely dominated by areas highly susceptible (>20% slope) to erosion.

Based on the combined effects of the four factors, the watershed was largely moderate in terms of soil erosion susceptibility (88.66% of the area). This was followed by areas highly susceptible (11.07%) of the area, and slight susceptibility (0.275) to erosion.

The Busol watershed is in a critical condition due to the soil erosion problems and land use changes occurring in the area. Conservation/control measures and rehabilitation programs should be strictly implemented in the area to effectively protect the Busol watershed from destructive forces.

Cabrido, Candido A. Jr. 1984. An Assessment of National Soil Erosion Control Management in the Philippines. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

Soil erosion remains the leading environmental problem gripping the country. Efforts to contain the problem started as early as 1930 until now. The introductory part deals with the nature and causes of soil erosion problem as well as its extent and/or present condition, while the main discussion center on government policies and programs with emphasis on the administration and technology of soil conservation measures. Three government agencies namely, Bureau of Soils, National Environmental Protection Council (NEPC) and Bureau of Forest Development (BFD), are tasked to undertake soil conservation projects and related activities.

Also the author briefly discussed nine national policies pertinent to soil erosion control. These policies are as follows: EO 648, PD 1152, LOI 549, PD 1586, PD 461, LOI 1260, PD 705, PD 1153, and LOI 423.

The national programs on soil erosion control are built-in components of larger programs. The Bureau of Soils is engaged in its water impounding projects, soil and land resources survey, soil conservation guided farm and soil erosion research. BFD undertakes ISFP, watershed development, forest protection and land classification programs. NEPC created the National Soil Erosion Control Management, an interagency task force that aims to expedite the optimal use of forest resources through systematic management of various government programs on soil conservation.

The major challenge in soil erosion control management is to develop operational mechanisms that will achieve an efficient coordinating system. Moreover, the matters to be considered for an efficient soil erosion control management system include: a nationwide monitoring system, appropriate technology, integration of soil conservation and erosion control measures in all land development activities plus promulgation of pertinent policy guidelines; and greater manpower development support for soil erosion control.

Clarete, Celso L. 1984. Improvement of Productivity and Utilization of Southern Mindanao Rainfed Areas through Effective Cropping System Technology. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C. , Philippines.

This work focused on the idea of increasing utilization of Southern Mindanao rainfed areas through the improvement of existing cropping system practices of rainfed farmers. To carry out the above concept, a survey was conducted to determine among others the practices to be improved. Survey results were made the bases of establishing study 2, entitled cropping pattern testing experiment. Because of the need to investigate the possibility of conserving the accumulated soil moisture for the dry season crop using resources and techniques right in the farmers’ field, study 3 was conducted.

Of the 222 non-supervised rainfed farms that were surveyed in 1982; 26, 63 and 11 percent were single, double and triple-cropped, respectively. Profits obtained ranged from P2, 190 to P2, 625 per hectare per year. Because of the limited soil moisture available towards the end of the dry season and the lack of locally based cropping system technology, farmers dared not to plant a second or third crop. The cropping index averaged at 55 and 60.9 percent for rainfed lowland and upland areas, respectively.

Legumes or corn planted in rotation with sorghum followed by a sorghum ratoon showed a considerable improvement in the utilization and productivity of dry rainfed areas in the region.

Obtained profits differed among the six sorghum-based cropping patterns tested under rainfed condition. Peanut-sorghum mungbean-sorghum and corn-sorghum patterns were 146, 80 and 52 percent higher than what had been obtained in the traditional farmers’ cropping pattern of corn-corn.

Micro-environment of sorghum planted during the dry season was improved through mulching and fertilization as evidenced in the grain yield components. Considerable amount of soil moisture, reduced weed population and extensive root system were observed in mulched sorghum.

Partial budget analysis on the use of rice straw mulch and fertilizer in sorghum production revealed encouraging results. Implications and recommendations as presented were based on the findings and conclusions of the studies.

Colting, R. D. and I. T. Corpuz. 1981. Controlling Soil Erosion in Highland Areas of the Philippines. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

A field study was conducted to determine the influence of different cover crops on run-off and soil loss. Erosion plots were established at the Mountain State Agricultural College–Philippine Textile Research Institute (MSAC-PTRI) experimental area at La Trinidad, Benguet. The amount of run-off, soil loss and percent vegetative cover were recorded for each run-off producing rainfall from July to October 1980.

The cover crops used were: winged bean, stylo, Centrosema, star grass, para grass, star grass + stylo mixture, kikuyu grass, star grass + winged bean mixture, and sweet potato.

There were no significant differences in run-off and soil loss in the early growth stages of the cover crops. Two months after establishment, the grasses, grass-legume mixtures and sweet potato reduced run-off and soil loss compared to legume alone and bare plot. Percent vegetative cover had an inverse relationship with soil loss. The decreasing order of effectiveness of the different cover crops in preventing run-off and soil loss were potato, para grass + stylo mixture, para grass, Centrosema, stylo and winged bean, respectively. Changes in soil properties were noted but a considerable amount of organic matter, phosphorus and potassium were lost because of erosion.

Concepcion, Roger N. 1991. Soil and Water Conservation Strategies in Hilly Lands. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner VisayasAvenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines.

A basin or sub-basin approach was presented as an ideal development strategy for hilly lands, as opposed to the compartmentalized and production–focused approach. Any attempt to formulate soil conservation and production measures should extend beyond a single farm since soil erosion comes from the combined influences of the total physical and environmental conditions of the whole landscape. Some basic soil and water conservation strategies of the Bureau of Soils were enumerated along with their attendant problems in implementation. Among the conservation strategies observed were land resources evaluation and suitability, information and on-farm education campaign on soil and water conservation measures, soil and water conservation and research projects and small water impounding projects.

Costales, E. F. Jr. and R. B. Costales. 1983. Determination and Evaluation of Some Emergency Measures for the Quick Rehabilitation of Newly Burned Pine Watershed Areas in the Pine Forests. Compilation of Research Abstracts, PMSD, ERDB CAR, Loakan, Baguio City, Philippines

This investigation focused on the evaluation of selected biological measure in reducing soil erosion, namely: broadcast sowing of annual and perennial grasses, broadcast sowing plus fertilizer application, contour planting with tiger grass and contour trenching including plating of low growing and creeping vegetation. The study was conducted in newly burned 5 to 10 years old Benguet pine plantation of the Bureau of Forest Development (BFD) at Boneco, Itogon, Benguet.

Three years after treatment application, surface runoff and sediment yield were significantly higher in the control or untreated plot than in the treated plots. Due to comparable vegetative cover in the treated plots, surface runoff and erosion yield did not vary significantly among the plots. The cheapest treatment to vegetative/rehabilitate newly burned pine watershed was contour planting with tiger grass. Aside from providing vegetative cover to the plots, additional income can be generated by using the inflorescence of the tiger grass for broom making.

Cuison, Joel B. 2002. Extent of Soil Loss in an Alley Cropping System Planted with Yam Species Under Kakawate (Gliricidia sepium Linn.) Hedgerows. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Soil erosion depletes the land of its surface soil and its fertility, thereby making the land unproductive. When this situation happens, economic imbalance naturally occurs and the peace and order situation near these areas is likely to worsen. Precautionary measure for sloping agricultural lands should be observed for productive sustainable agriculture.

This study aimed to determine soil loss on plots planted with ube and tugui in an alley cropping system under kakawate hedgerows and to determine the relationship between rainfall amount and soil loss on plots planted with ube and tugui as a dry crop under kakawate hedgerows. The Randomized Complete Block Design was used in 30% slope experimental area with three blocks and each block was divided into 11 plots where the treatments were assigned: C0 – no alley crop, C1 – tugui as a alley crop and C2 – ube as alley crop.

Result of the study revealed that a plot without alley had significant higher sediment yield and run-off than those plots planted with tugui and ube. Furthermore, run-off and rainfall amount showed strong relationship with 90.25% of the variation in run - off which is attributed to rainfall and a slight relationship between sediment yield and rainfall amount.

Tugui and ube crops are recommended as alley crops in between kakawate hedgerows so as to reduce surface run-off and sediment yield hence maintaining fertility of the area.

Daño, A.M. and S. R. Baconguis. 1987. Surface Run-off and Soil Loss Under Different Land Uses in the Philippine (Soil Conservation and Productivity). Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines.

Run-off or streamflow and sediment yield are two important hydrologic responses to consider in the management of the forest and rangeland watersheds.

A secondary dipterocarp forest and two grasslands watersheds situated within the Angat Experimental Watershed were used in the study. The dipterocarp forest watershed has an area of 4.59 ha while the grassland watersheds, left and right fork, have areas of 0.95 ha and 1.64 ha, respectively. Prior to implementation of treatments, baseline data were collected. After calibration, one of the grassed catchments was protected from fire and one was burned annually. No treatment was carried out in the catchment. The second involved the establishment of a forest cover in one of the grassland watersheds while the other continued to be burned annually.

Study revealed an insignificant difference on surface run-off and soil loss between burned and unburned watershed and lower run-off coefficient of grassland compared to dipterocarp forest-covered watershed. Grasslands were also found to have a higher but insignificant soil loss.

The small sizes of the experimental watersheds and perhaps the variability of the data in this study are reasons to conclude that the findings in this study should be considered as distinct of these areas. More and bigger watersheds, longer records and more stable data based on per persons or per year analysis would be important to make a generalized conclusion and estimates of run-off and sediment yield for dipterocarps and grasslands. If these grassland watersheds were grazed, controlling forage utilization and animal distribution could offer effective preventive control of surface run-off and erosion. Studies have shown that management of grazing can decrease run-off and increase the amount of available precipitation entering the soil for plant consumption and for the watershed.

De Los Angeles, M. S. et al. 1992. Forest Land-Use Practices in Philippine Uplands: National Level Analysis Based on Eight Villages. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

Support for upland and forestry development activities in the eight study sites, though positive, was not substantial to conduct extensive analysis on the effect of the government intervention on forest-tree use practices. Nevertheless, the practice of non-traditional farm systems (tree systems of agro-forest) is desirable because it spares the use of public forest. Such systems have developed despite limited government intervention mechanisms.

Significant relationships can be observed between forest, land and tree-use practices and farmers categorized according to land size/ownership. Upland project managers must grant more secured property rights to the small and medium landholders under the social forestry projects, particularly in their early stages. With respect to the landless, fuelwood comes mostly from farms, implying that this group is not that important as far as forest depletion from fuelwood gathering is concerned.

Gathering of fuelwood contributes significantly in depleting forest resources. The extent of such activities and the factors that determine them should be monitored. Among the upland dwellers, the following variables were found to be important: 1) income from other tree products; 2) time spent for gathering; 3) farming system practiced; and 40 farm sizes. Other possible important sources of forest destruction are the fuel wood traders who do not reside in upland areas. This group should also be investigated in the future studies.

Data gathering activities should be conducted uniformly on forest, land use and tree-use practices in several sites in the country. This procedure allows for more variation in the formation being collected enabling meaningful measurement of the relationship of variable investigated. Such effort as well as random sampling of the household and the sites covered will provide a better basis for broad policy formulation. To determine the sites and culture specific conditions, survey should likewise be accompanied by case studies that provide information important to upland project implementers in the field–level.

De Los Santos, Alberto E. 1981. Water Budget and Nutrient Fluxes in Mossy Forest in Mt. Data, Mt. Province. Compilation of Research Abstracts, UPLB College of Forestry, Laguna, Philippines

The two-year record of rainfall and runoff from a 7.2 ha. mossy forest watershed I Mt. Province was analyzed to determine the water budget of 1976-1978 and to find out whether rainfall characteristics influence total runoff and peak runoff. Also the fluxes of nutrients for a four-month period (NH4-N, P2O5, K, Ca and Mg) in rainwater and stream water were evaluated. The study site is part of the FORI’s mossy forest watershed laboratory.

The water budget method was used in determining the watershed’s water budget; the multiple regression analyses was used to develop models for total runoff and storm runoff were expressed in m3 ha-1 and runoff peak was in m3 day-1 ha-1.

The water budget components analyzed were total rainfall, total runoff, storm runoff, evapotranspiration and basin moisture storage.

The average annual runoff was 29,234 m3 ha-1 or 292.34 ha-cm or about 86.68 percent of total rainfall. Total runoff, storm runoff, evapotranspiration and basin moisture storage were about 96.20, 48.30, 17.81 and 33.89 percent, respectively. On the average, the storm runoff-total runoff ratio was 49.46 percent.

Monthly total runoff was dependent upon initial runoff and total rainfall. About 95 percent of the total runoff variation was explained by initial runoff and total rainfall. Ninety three percent of the variation in storm runoff was explained by the combined effects of total rainfall, rainfall duration and intensity, and peak runoff, variation was significantly accounted for by initial runoff, total rainfall, rainfall duration and intensity. Only 6 percent of the variation in peak runoff was left unexplained.

The average NH4-N, P2O5, K, Ca and Mg concentration in rainwater and stream water samples were: for rainwater; 0.21, 0.244, 3.971, 10.0 and 8.75 ppm., respectively, and for stream water; 0.266, 0.264, 4.55, 8.75 and 6.25 ppm., respectively. Both stream and rain water samples were acidic; the stream water pH (3.24) was slightly lower than rainwater pH (3.58).

Eusebio, M. A., N.H. Hoanh and E. Eusebio. 1999. Soil Conservation in the Philippines. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

The combination of farming practices, e.g. furrow contour farming, hedgerows, etc., with appropriate farming system in agroforestry scheme could help check soil erosion and improve the productivity of the land. The condition of the planting sites; the available manpower in individual farms; and the supply and demand of the farm products are some of the factors that should be considered with regard to the size of the area to be developed; and the schedule of farm activities. Gradual conversion of the sloping areas to productive agroforestry farms and planting of short-term crops in gentle slopes or in flat areas are also recommended. With these strategies, the reduction of soil loss and attainment of a sustainable yield could be realized.

Florentin, Josel M. 1998. Problems and Watershed Management Needs in the Lower San Roque Drainage Basin, San Manuel and San Nicolas Pangasinan. MSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

Watershed is a catchment area intended for the production and maintenance of potable water, domestic consumption, for the agricultural sector and for the generation of current for our electricity needs.

The study was conducted to obtain information on the characteristics of the Lower San Roque Drainage Basin, taking into particular consideration the physical, biological, socio-institutional and economic aspects. The specific objectives were: to (1) identify and study the watershed problems in the river basin along with the causes and consequences; (2) determine the degree of importance or seriousness of problem consequences; and (3) prescribe watershed management strategies, and recommend measures to ensure effective implementation of such strategies.

The study revealed that the drainage basin is being threatened and destroyed by illegal logging, kaingin making, forest fires, forestland squatting/illegal occupancy, forests pests and diseases, graft and corruption, and soil erosion. The findings confirmed the common observation that forest resources depletion is mainly caused by illegal logging, kaingin making, forest fire, and forest squatting. The primary causes of these problems were the lack of livelihood and connivance of responsible officials/employees in the case of illegal logging, landlessness and lack of education for forestland squatting.

The study also showed that environmental/ecological destruction was the main effect/consequence of watershed problems, followed by the suffering of future generation, and the least significant effect was the socio-economic setback.

The most important watershed management strategies were forest protection, reforestation, involvement of schools and barangay officials in forestry information campaign and people’s participation in forestry development and management activities.

The mean peak priority rank of the recommendations to support the application of the strategies for the management of the study drainage basin is as follows: (1) strict implementation of appropriate reward and disciplinary measures, (2) sufficient budget and adequate manpower, (3) strict implementation of forestry laws, rules and regulations, and policies, (4) values re-orientation and stopping or prohibiting kaingin making, (5) conducting forestry trainings, lectures, seminar related activities for students and other sectors of the society, (6) controlling/prohibiting illegal logging, and (7) integration of forestry subjects in school curriculum. These recommendations were rated important or very important by the farmer, private, government and academic (college and high school level) sectors. In this context, the drainage basin would be capable to sustainably perform its protection and production factors.

Proposals included encouraging the farmers to implement more stable soil erosion control measures, enhancing their indigenous soil erosion mitigation measures, and strengthening introduced mitigation measures.

Francisco, H.A. Economics of Soil Erosion and Conservation: The Case of the Magat Watershed. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

This study was conducted primarily to determine and quantify the costs associated with soil erosion (on-site costs) and sedimentation (off-site costs) in the Magat watershed. The values obtained were then used to determine the economic profitability of undertaking a social conservation project, i.e., an agroforestry farm project.

Data used on rate of sheet erosion in the area were obtained from MADECOR’s 1982 study, which estimated the average sheet erosion rate to be 51.79 t/ha/yr for the entire Magat watershed area. Sheet erosion losses were furthermore estimated to be 30-40 percent of gross soil loss in the area. The on-site cost estimation revealed that a ton of soil contained P 12.85 worth of inorganic fertilizers consisting of 2.3 kg urea, 0.80 kg superphosphate and 0.56 kg muriate of potash, all valued using 1985 price level. For the entire watershed, sheet erosion losses can cause an annual depletion of P274.38 Millions worth of inorganic fertilizers consisting of P181.5 M worth of urea, P42.70 M of super phosphate and P 50.18M of muriate of potash. A ton of sediment, on the other hand, can cause a loss of P0.41 worth of irrigation and power benefits. Given a sedimentation rate of 34.5 t/ha/yr for the entire watershed of 412,303 hectares and assuming a trap efficiency of 93 percent than the yearly sedimentation losses amounted to P5.42. On a per hectare basis, off-site damage cost was estimated to be P 13.15.

The estimated value of damaged associated with erosion and sedimentation were then re-valued using shadow prices of relevant input and output and incorporated in the economic analysis of a soil conservation measure like an agroforestry farm project. Result of the analysis showed that from the society’s point of view, an average 3.5 hectare agroforestry farm project could earn an NPV of P431,485.58 over 20 years of operation using a discount rate of a 12 percent. The project also yields a B/C ratio of 2.80 as against a B/C ratio of 1.16 if the present farming system of continuous cash crop cultivation is to be maintained. Financial analysis of the project was done and results of the analysis showed that an NPV of P 107, 252.00 could be realized from an average landholding of 3.5 ha farmland. Also a B/C ratio of 1.84 as against the without project situation of 1.55 was realized. The values thus obtained showed that there is a greater incentive for the adoption of the agroforestry farm project that there is for the farmer than the private entity.

Fujisaka, S.A. Mercado, Jr. and D.P. Garrity. Farmer Adaptation and Adoption of Contour Hedgerows for Soil Conservation. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

A farmer-to-farmer training, farmers at an upland research site in the Philippines adapted and adopted contour hedgerows over a period of four years. They developed hedgerow establishment methods that required less labor, eliminated grasses too competitive with crops, stopped planting trees initially intended to produce green manure, and planted species with possible direct cash returns. The different systems equally and effectively controlled soil erosion, although grazing of neighbors’ cattle on hedgerows was a problem. Farmers who learned about the technology but did not establish contour hedgerows on their farms had higher proportions of the flat land and/or non- farm income opportunities.

Gamboa, Richard et al. 2000. Infiltration Rates of an Agroforestry Farm and a Secondary Growth Forest in DMMMSU-CAF Watershed Reservation in Bacnotan, La Union. BSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

The degradation such as compaction of soil due to logging and excessive “kaingin” activities reduces infiltration capacity thereby increasing more surface runoff; hence, there is increased soil erosion. In other areas of the watershed where agricultural activities are practiced, it has been observed that there is major disturbance of the soil. Improper tillage and farming reduce infiltration capacity and productivity of the soil.

The study aimed to determine and compare the infiltration rates of the two land uses, namely: AF farm and secondary growth forest, as affected by soil characteristics, vegetation and topographic features.

Infiltration rates were determined using a single ring infiltrometer. Soil characteristics determined included organic matter content, moisture content, texture, partial density, bulk density, percent porosity and soil temperature.

The vegetation was identified using the line intercept method in AF while point center quarter method was used in the secondary growth forest. Topographic features such as elevation, slope and exposure were determined using the topo map, dendrometer and compass, respectively.

Results showed that the secondary growth forest exhibited a higher infiltration rate as compared to the AF farm. This is attributed to the difference in soil characteristics, vegetative cover and topo features. The secondary growth forest recorded a higher organic matter content, % porosity, due to higher accumulation of litter brought about by the denser vegetation dominated by Tagotoi and Basikong Kalawang of the molave spp. The lower infiltration rates in the AF farm are attributed to the cumulative compaction of soil, which recorded higher bulk density but lower percentage porosity. Elevation, slope and exposure were also higher in the secondary growth forest against the lower elevation, less steep and opposite exposure of the agroforestry area.

Dense vegetation had a large effect on infiltration rate as it contributes soil development and it regulates environmental condition of the area. Thus, in watershed, planning and management vegetation should be given importance and subject to proper management.

Further studies on infiltration shall be conducted in all seasons differing land uses and intensities of management practices to determine the effects of each land uses in the area especially in critical watersheds.

Lansigan, F. P. and V.C. Cuevas. 1988. Controlling Soil Erosion and Sustaining Productivity in Rice-Based Shifting Cultivation System in Mt. Makiling, Philippines. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

Accelerated soil erosion and non-use of fertilizers by upland farmers are two of the most important causes of declining soil fertility in upland areas. The decline in soil fertility leads to decreasing crop productivity through time cultivation resulting to cultivation-fallow cycle. With population stress, the cultivation phase has been lengthened and the fallow period shortened. A study was conducted to determine the effect of using compost materials and wooden terraces in maintaining soil fertility of upland kaingin area and minimizing soil loss. A cost effective soil erosion monitoring system has been installed providing for statistically reliable data acquisition for comparing effects of various treatments.

Lasangen, Wileen Chiara Talanay. 2000. Soil Erosion Problems and the Mitigation Practices Applied in the Mount Data Catchment, Bauko, Mountain Province. MSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

Destruction of natural habitats of fauna and flora will continue to endanger their existence. If this problem will not be given attention, genetic materials will be destroyed and the importance of these flora and fauna to sustain ecological balance will remain unknown forever.

There is a need to focus more attention to control soil erosion to prevent the occurrence of chain problems that affect the upland and lowland areas in terms of pollution of water bodies, high rates of sedimentation in rivers, reservoirs and irrigation canals and the loss of nutrient from agricultural and forest land.

The literature indicates that the Mount Data resources are deteriorating at a rapid rate. Thus, this study aimed to determine the extent of soil erosion; the indigenous and introduced soil erosion mitigation measures applied by farmers; level of effectiveness of these measures/practices; the level of farmers’ and stakeholders participation in soil and water conservation; the major causes of soil erosion in the study area; the constraints experienced by implementers and farmers in the application of soil erosion control practices; the consequences of soil erosion observed by the implementers and farmers. More importantly, the study aimed to propose means to minimize the occurrence of soil erosion.

The respondents were 228 farmers and 16 implementers from the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Department of Agriculture, Mountain Province State Polytechnic College, Mount Data National High School and Maba-ay National High School.

Sheet, rill, gully and landslide are the types of erosions occurring in the different land ecosystems, which include agricultural, forest, grassland, brush land and open land.

The agricultural ecosystem, having the most number of occurrences of soil erosion types, was most prone to soil erosion. The extent of soil erosion was determined through ranges in length, width and depth. The occurrence of soil erosion was significantly higher in the agricultural ecosystem, and the occurrence in the grassland, brushland and open land ecosystem did not differ significantly. The occurrence in the forest ecosystem was significantly lower than those of the other ecosystems.

The seven indigenous soil erosion mitigation measures/practices identified were crop rotation, terracing, stonewalls or kabite or toping, diversion ditches/irrigation canals, cover cropping, mulching and Agroforestry. The ten introduced soil erosion practices included Agroforestry (SALT), grassed waterways, contour buffer strip planting, hedgerows, reforestation, wattling, fascines, gabion/checkdam, riprap (improved stonewalls) and farm ponds/water impounding dams/catch basin. For the indigenous practices, terracing was the most applied and for the introduced, planting hedgerows.

As evaluated by the farmers and the implementers, the mitigation measures were very much adopted. The farmers perceived them to be very much effective and the implementers to be highly effective.

The farmers were perceived to be actively participating in soil erosion control.

Identified five major causes of soil erosion were road widening activities, rampant cutting of trees, quarrying, kaingin making and farm mismanagement. Observed consequences of soil erosion were reduced fertility, siltation, destruction of forest and agricultural crops, reduced vegetative cover and reduced water yield.

Leon, Gegy A. 1998. Effects of Cover Crops and Hedgerows on Soil Erosion Under Sloping Agricultural Land Technology (SALT in Labueg, Kapangan, Benguet). BSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

Almost all areas in the Cordillera region are hilly and sloping which are prone to soil erosion. Hence, the research is geared towards soil conservation in order to promote sustainability in upland farming.

This study was conducted to determine the runoff, soil loss, weekly height of forage crops and hedgerows and the chemical properties of the soil under Sloping Agricultural Land Technology (SALT).

The result showed that double hedgerows of Rensonii and Flemengia with forage crops planted along the alley were found to be effective in minimizing soil erosion and runoff. Without vegetation or hedgerows contributed to greater surface runoff and soil loss was observed in the data gathered.

Moreover, there was no change in the N contents and pH value. There was an increase in O, M, P and K contents of the soil.

Results revealed that double hedgerows were an effective means to minimize soil erosion and nutrient loss. At the same time, forage crops planted along the alleys had good results. This means that hedgerows (rensonii and flemingia) could be good combination with forage crops (Golden Timothy and Napier grass).

Lovejoy, Stephen B. and Ted L. Napier. 1988. Institutional Constraints to Soil Conservation on Steep Lands. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

The problem of soil erosion has affected every society in various degrees. Farmlands, especially in steep slopes are severely affected by soil erosion due to lack of adoption of soil conservation techniques. Issues behind the poor adoption of soil and water conservation technology were identified.

The article provided an overview of the author’s perception of the true nature of the problem. He discussed why soil erosion was considered a technological problem and tried to explain why it is and should be considered as an institutional and social issue. Conservation policies and programs designed for steep lands must take in a vast array of institutional and social factors. Having neglected these factors in the past has proven very costly. The institutional constraints that have to be addressed by future programs for them to be successful are: macro-economic and macro-social constraints; coordination of conservation efforts; information types and dissemination; specific objectives in policies and programs; action option analysis; and relevance of program to the situation of potential adopters.

In addition to the constitutional constraints, the other factors that led to the poor adoption of soil conservation technologies are: (1) an inadequate social science research to develop comprehensive soil erosion control programs especially in less developed societies; (2) policies without consideration of institutional barriers; (3) modification of technology from highly developed societies is needed upon transferring and adoption of less developed societies; and (4) soil conservation programs must be reviewed continuously and modified to remain relevant to existing situations.

Lubin, George Jr. G. 2002. Watershed Management Practices Employed in the Forestry Practicum Projects of the Mountain Province State Polytechnic College. MSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

Watersheds are reservoirs of a wide range of resources including vegetations, wildlife, land, water and minerals. Although vegetation covers from the very core of the watershed, deforestation of watershed lands in the Philippines is prevalent.

In answer to the need to come up with a tool for watershed conservation, rehabilitation and protection, this study aimed to determine the watershed management adopted ; extent of contribution of reasons for selecting adopted practices; level of appropriateness of the adopted practices, and problems encountered.

Findings showed that measures practiced included partial or complete removal of vegetation for site preparation, applying artificial and assisted natural regeneration for vegetation establishment; applying regular and semi-regular for spacing; replanting, fertilizing mainly by mulching, controlling weeds by ring weeding and doing liberation cutting for maintenance; employing vegetative and structural for soil and water conservation, construction fire line combined with other methods for forest protection; and fencing for protection from grazing animals.

The leading reasons for adopting watershed management practices are exposure to and access to knowledge, recommendations of technical persons, farmers/community folks; and observation of widely used practice, planting stock, method, etc.

The leading appropriate plantation establishment practices were the use of semi-regular spacing, liberation cutting, assisted natural regeneration and planting of plantable size potted seedlings; soil and water conservation practices were rip rapping and mulching; and protection against fire and grazing animal practices were minimized through live fencing and constructing fireline.

In descending order of seriousness, the problems met were prolonged dry season, lack of trainings required for WSM practices skill development, high cost of labor, insufficient or lack of practicum project site, lack of financial support from parents or landowners, insufficient adviser supervision on actual implementation of planned activities, and uncontrolled forest fires.

Macasaet, R.M., M.S. Santos and M. R. Saplacio. 1980. Attitudes of Bicol River Watershed Inhabitants Towards Soil Erosion Control And Water Yield Improvement. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

Through a structured interview schedule, data were gathered in three watershed areas in the Bicol River Basin. Findings revealed that the Bicol River Basin inhabitants were generally well-informed on what a watershed is. The respondents were aware of the existence of watershed destruction in their localities in the form of soil erosion/landslides, timber smuggling and forest fire. Kaingin-making was believed to be a means of livelihood for those who practice it, and was resorted to by non-farm owners, hence some people still go on to the burning of forest and indiscriminate cutting of trees in the watershed.

Only about one-third of the total respondents were aware of the government agencies’ protection and rehabilitation of the Bicol River Watershed such as the BFD’s tree-planting and nursery establishment activities, and the BRBDP’s irrigation and drainage system, and road improvement.

Some respondents were also aware of the benefits derived from the projects such as maintenance or preservation of the forest and the improvement of the watershed for the people of the next generation. Majority expressed their desire to be involved in watershed rehabilitation projects within the Bicol River area, with the reason that such involvement would be for the benefit of the many. Among the watershed protection and rehabilitation activities done by the respondents were: planting of trees or reforestation, reminding people not to cut.

Ngales, Larry P. 1997. Biodiversity Assessment of the Mossy Forests in the Cordillera. Mt. Province. Compilation of Research Abstracts, ERDS, DENR-CAR, Loakan, Baguio City, Philippines

The mossy forest of Mt. Amuyao, Barlig, Mt. Province; Mt. Data, Bauko, Mt. Province; and Mt. Pulag, Kabayan, Benguet were assessed and characterized. Results indicate that species composition of the plant community in Mt. Amuyao, Barlig, Mt. Province is more diverse than to the other two studies sites.

Forty-eight (48) plant species representing the overstory vegetation were dominated by Lithocarpus jordanae, Rhododendron sp., Evodia benguetensis and Vaccinium spp. associated with other understory vegetation such as Drymis pipperita as well al unidentified ground orchids and ferns. There were five (5) overstory species which were not properly identified. Likewise, from the two other sites, Lithocarpus spp., Dacrycarpus cumingii, Phyllocladus hypophyllus and Syzgium acrophilum locally known as “bertik” dominated the area. It has been noted that Phyllocladus hyphophyllus and Dacrycarpus cumigi only thrived in the middle elevation range of 2,000 masl up to 2,700 masl. Benguet Pine trees also grew well sparsely with the mossy forest trees particularly at Mt. Amuyao and Mt. Pulag areas.

On the other hand, the grassland area of Mt. Pulag with an elevation range of 2,700 masl to 2,922 masl (Peak) is dominated by Miscanthus sp. and Yushania niitakayamensis (Dwarf bamboo) associated with Carex sp. Cyperus sp. Scirpus sp. Agrostis sp. and Monostachya sp. with few single standing stunded B. pine trees. It was further noted that grass vegetation was more diverse at the lower elevation area particularly at the ecotone of mossy forest and the grassland. The existence of some species, namely: Lycopods, Dipteris sp., Cersium vulgare and Smilax china was notable. Moreover, observation revealed that the dwarf bamboo which had an average height of 0.60 to 0.90 meter can grow as high as 3.0 meters when associated with tree vegetation particularly at an elevation range of 2600 to 2200 asl.

For faunal assessment, there were 17 avian species and six mammal species; 13 avian species and four (4) mammal species; and 22 avian species and six mammal species identified at Mt. Amuyao, Barlig, Mt. Province; Mt. Data, Bauko, Mt. Province, and Mt. Pulag, Kabayan, Benguet, respectively. The common faunal species in all study sites were the white-Eyebrowed Shama, Philippine Bulbul, Luzon Bush Warbler, Jungle Fowl, Crested Myna, Swallow, Swiftlet, and Philippine Hanging Parakeet of the avian species. The mammals were represented by the Philippine Bushy-Tailed Rat, Wild Pig, and Philippine Deer.

Nguyen, H.H. 1985. Soil and Water Conservation and Productivity in a System of Intensive Agro- Forestry. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

The study was conducted at the Mudspring Experimental Forest of the Forest Research Institute, Los Baños, Laguna. The annual crops used were pineapple, cassava, sweet potato, and peanut intercropped between ipil-ipil and papaya spaced at 2m x 3m and 2m x 6m, respectively. The study site was composed of clay loam soil with an average slope of 15 percent. Results showed that the cropping system studied improved the soil characteristics particularly in the downslope plots. With respect to surface run-off and soil erosion control, sweet potato proved to be the best vegetative cover in a short period of time while pineapple had a lower lasting effect on soil erosion.

Pacio, Florencio I. 2003. Impact of Land Use Practices on Sediment Loading Within Benguet Pine Watershed Ecosystem. MSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

The increasing demand for space for land use development brought about by the rapid population growth particularly in the uplands has triggered the conversion of watersheds into hasty and ill-planned development activities. Land-use practices account for a considerable destruction of soil cover, which, in turn, triggers upland erosion and stream sediment and nutrient loading.

The study determined the sediment load (total suspended, solids, total dissolved solids and total solids) and turbidity of the collected water samples during four subsequent rainfall events from runoff/surface runoff of selected land use systems in Benguet Pine watersheds. The land uses were mining (open pit/surface system), grazing, forested areas (natural forest), forest plantations, and agroforestry.

The study was laid out in CRD in the experimental stream/creek with in the study site. Three plots in the stream were marked as sampling points where one liter water sample was collected. Grab/depth-integrating sampling techniques were adopted.

Results showed that in terms of sediment load, the consistent top five land uses were dirt road, vegetable farm planted to assorted crops, quarrying, residential and old asphalt road. The land uses that produced intermediate sediment load were mining, vegetable farm planted to onions, grazing and agroforestry area. The lowest land uses were the cement/paved road, plantation forest and natural forest.

The top five land uses with highly turbidity mean were quarrying, vegetable farm planted to assorted crops, dirt roads, mining, and vegetable farm planted to onions.

Quarrying consistently had the highest mean after four subsequent rainfall occurrences, with intermediate turbidity means. The old asphalt road, grazing, residential, agroforestry and plantation forest, concrete road and natural forest had the lowest mean.

A recommendation to mitigate or abate the high sediment load and turbidity includes adopting or integrating soil and water conservation measures appropriate for the different land uses. The three major approaches that may be employed to control accelerated soil erosion are vegetative, engineering and a combination of both.

Paningbatan, E.P., D.T. Guinto and R.A. Comia. 1991. Soil Conservation for Hilly-Land Farming Systems. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines.

The nature of the agroclimatic environment and crop management practices of hilly land farmers in the Philippines are conducive to severe erosion. Unless acceptable, cropping system alternatives with built-in soil conservation and rehabilitation measures are adopted, land degradation and the impoverished living condition of these farmers will continue to worsen.

Alley and multi-storey cropping systems are soil conservation-oriented agroforestry systems that are appropriate for farming hilly areas. Alley cropping which involves planting of shrub, tree or leguminous hedgerows along the contours and agricultural crops in the alleys has become acceptable to hilly land farmers in some parts of Mindanao and the Visayas. Multi-storey cropping involved growing of a combination of annual and or perennial crops of different heights, canopy and rooting patterns to maximize the use of sunlight, nutrient, and water and minimize erosion.

In alley cropping systems, erosion rates on steep slopes can be brought down to a tolerable level when other soil conservation practices such as contouring, mulching, minimum tillage, and waterways are incorporated in the system.

Ramirez, D. M. 1988. Evaluation of Two Soil Conservation Measures in an Upland Cropping System. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

Two kinds of conservation measures, namely balabag and napier contour strips were evaluated based on: (1) their ability to reduce the rate of accelerated sheet erosion from sloping farms, and (2) their comparative economic feasibility and advantages. These conservation measures were integrated at different intensities at 6.0 m, 3.5 m and 2.0 m intervals to form in between farm alleys where gabi (Colocasia esculenta (L.Schott.) plants were grown as the agricultural crop.

The study showed that conservation measures at higher conservation intensities or closer

intervals were more efficient in trapping soil particles eroding down the slopes than those at the lower intensities or farther intervals, with napier slightly more efficient than balabag. However, the balabag structures were found to be more effective in breaking the erosive force of surface run-off than the napier contour strips. The study also showed that a natural terracing process actually occurred on the sloping farms as a result of integrating the contour structures with either the balabag or the napier grass acting as risers.

The experimental study confirmed that total rainfall was logarithmically correlated with the extent of soil erosion. It was also observed that a similar amount of total rainfall, sheet erosion was comparatively lower towards the end of the rainy season or the cropping period.

The study likewise found that aside from rainfall and other biophysical variables like soil, the soil conservation measure index (SCMI) gave a significant contribution to sheet erosion prediction.

The amount of gabi production was significantly reduced as a consequence of increasing the intensity of soil conservation measures in the sloping farms. However, in the case of the napier contour strips, additional farm income could be realized by regularly cutting the grass as fodder either for sale or for raising some livestock in the backyard.

The economic analysis of the different cropping schemes defined by the different experimental treatments showed that the Napier contour strips as conservation measures were more economically attractive than the balabag structures. Aside from the additional income from fodder, the Napier contour structures could be established at the lower costs than balabag. Moreover, the Napier strips were more permanent structures than the balabag which need to be replaced almost every four years.

The soil fertility replacement method was used to slow the ecological costs resulting from accelerated sheet erosion from various cropping schemes. Illustrations, figures and tables reflecting top soil movements, NPV and BCR and other analyses were included to highlight the results of the study.

Rawal, Rana B. 1991. Performance of Some Selected Crops Under a Natural Benguet Pine (Pinus kesiya) Stand. MSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

Agroforestry, if properly implemented, enables the close interaction of agriculture and forestry so that optimum benefits can be derived for both. In this case, agriculture and forestry are independent of each other. Forest crops will provide the growing agriculture crops considerable from wind damage, and at the same time supply ample soil moisture.

The study determined the performance of selected agronomic and medicinal crops in terms of yield, surface runoff, soil physico-chemical characteristics and changes in soil fertility under planted or grown under a 15 to 20 year-old natural Benguet Pine at the experimental area of Ecosystem Research and Development Service of the DENR, CAR, Loakan Road, Baguio City.

The overall result of crop yield decreased in the following order: radish>bunching > onion > potato > sweetpotato > tomato > cabbage > eggplant > garlic. Except radish and bunching onion, all other experimental crops had lower yield than those produced by farmers.

Surface runoff and soil loss varied with the experimental crops. Under an average monthly rainfall of 326.04mm, plot planted to eggplant significantly registered the highest surface runoff, and plot planted to sweet potato registered the lowest.

For soil loss, the result in decreasing magnitude is as follows: potato > bunching onion > garlic > tomato > cabbage> eggplant > sweet potato > radish. Potato plot produced significantly higher soil loss than other experimental plots.

Tomato caused the highest change in soil pH. The lowest change value was observed in bunching onion and sweet potato crops. The change in OM in experimental plots was not significant. However, garlic crop had the highest change and sweet potato, bunching onion and radish crops had the lowest.

No significant change in P and Mg content was observed in all experimental crops. In K and Ca change, significant differences were observed among different test crops. Potato had the highest change in K, and radish, the lowest. Considerable change in Ca content was observed in tomato, and lowest values were observed in cabbage, sweet potato and in radish.

A negative relationship existed between yield and OM, pH, SRO, Mg, K, Ca, and P. Soil loss was positively correlated. Further, the relationship between yield and OM and P was significant. In the case of the other parameters, the relationship was not significant.

The performance of radish, sweet potato and bunching onion in respect to economical yield, surface runoff and soil nutrient changes were found encouraging. Thus, planting these crops under the Benguet pine forest ecosystem, although the soil loss was found higher than the tolerable limit value of 3-10 tons/ha/year, is worth recommending.

Rebugio, A.M, A.B. Velasco, A.M. Jimena and P.M. Atienza. 1978. Attitudes of Upper Pampanga River Basin Inhabitants to Watershed Rehabilitation and Reforestation. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

A total of 317 respondents were interviewed from six barangays of Pantabangan, Nueva Ecija, to determine the characteristics and attitude of the Upper Pampanga River Basin inhabitants towards watershed rehabilitation and reforestation.

Majority of the respondents were Tagalog while a small percentage were Ilocanos and Visayans. The population was relatively young and had a relatively low education. This implies a pool of potential source of manual labor which when not being harnessed for employment by the government or private enterprises will serve as a threat to the watershed rehabilitation.

Low level of income coupled with low level of education and relatively large family size summed up uniformly poor groups of inhabitants. However, the previously enumerated variables did not show any statistical relationship to attitude towards watershed rehabilitation and reforestation because people see the place as an unproductive site for agricultural crops. The place was not suited for kaingin-making and or farming although a few had tried. This was perhaps the reason why the public market was not operational.

Presently, the main source of income of the inhabitants was employment. However, until when will employment be the main source of income? Until when will the manual labor be absorbed? When the Pantabangan dam was finished, many laborers were already laid off. Although the BFD was employing some, how many can it absorb? In the next years we will find unemployment as a major problem.

Sajise, Percy E. 1978. Soil Conservation and Ecosystem Management. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines.

An ecosystem approach to soil management is deemed needed in the Philippines. This is manifested in the inability to predict long-term productivity of soil subjected to various management systems and the inability to conceive ecosystems as a continuum.

A conceptual model of nutrient flow in an ecosystem shows the status of nutrients in the soil and that it is a function of several inputs and output parameters. Also the research framework and results obtained from the UPLB-NIA-DNR-FORD Foundation Upland Hydroecology Program (UHP) was cited as a specific example to expand the ecosystem outlook in soil conservation and management.

The various recommendations include the following: incorporation of ecosystem approach in soil management and conservation, incorporation of upland soil management program for massive development programs in lowlands; strict implementation of soil conservation/land use policy, provision of integrating mechanism, intensification of the present effort to regenerate eroded areas, and promote the use of endemic species in soil conservation

Sajise, Percy E. 1984. Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation in the Philippines: Some Traditional and Modern Practices. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines.

It is generally believed by many that due to the prevailing conditions, such as relatively high mean temperatures and moisture in the tropics, there occurred a more rapid alteration of minerals and an intense mineralization of organic matter. Such condition has led to the proposition that land degradation is brought about by the occurrence of processes, which promote soil erosion.

Over the years in the pursuit of controlling or minimizing soil erosion, different traditional soil and water conservation practices have existed, especially among ethnic tribes and long- term settlers in the uplands. The persistence of such practices is due to the prevailing socio political and cultural support system, which are all interwoven and inseparable components.

Awareness of the ecological impacts of soil erosion is a must for the people and the policy sector of the government. Likewise, the incorporation of the ecosystem approach in soil management and conservation is a must to provide support to interdisciplinary researches aiming to develop management schemes that will be productive, soil and water conserving and socially acceptable.

A strict implementation of the policies on soil and water conservation is needed. Also, farmers’ incentives should be given through the granting of land security and ownership to deserving communities, proper extension programs and adequate inputs, to inculcate in them the appreciation of the non-renewable nature of soil resources. It should be remembered that a centimeter of soil takes hundred of years to be formed and only a few years to be eroded in our present time. Soil loss is not only important for the present generation but more importantly for the survival of the future generation.

Sajise, P. et.al. 1983. Status of Soil Erosion in the Philippines and Some Countries in Asia and the Pacific. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

The increasing gravity of the problems brought about by soil erosion in tropical Asia and the Pacific has long been conducted to quantify rates of soil loss, nutrient loss and run-off under different vegetation covers at different sites.

In the Philippines, for example at Bicol, bare plots at 27 percent slope yielded 22.9 ton/ha/yr (Bocato, 1981), while in Benguet, 62.3 ton/ha/yr was lost in 29 percent slope areas (Colting, 1981) and 218.5 ton/ha/yr was lost in Negros in 21 percent slope areas (Sajise,1982). In Sri Lanka, soil loss in bare plot of 30 percent slope was 52.6 ton/ha/yr (Lal, 1976). In the same plot, tea cover lost only 20-22 ton/ha/yr. Corn was also cited to be an erosive plot also yielding soil loss of 14.8 tons/ha in Bicol and 90.21 tons/ha in Negros.

Para grass (Brachiaria mutico) was effective in controlling soil erosion. Bocato’s experiment pointed out that among the crops planted, plots grown to Paragrass had the least amount of soil erosion (65.7 kg/ha only). In Benguet, para grass was found to be less erosive also, second to sweet potato. In his findings, Colting (1981) observed that the effectiveness of potato in controlling soil erosion may be due to the intensive secondary root systems of sweet potato.

Sajise (1983) reported that intercropping base crops like sugar cane, cassava, and corn with a legume like mungbean was a very effective measure in controlling soil erosion. On the other hand, Serrano (1983) stated that intercropping coconut with pineapple was very destructive because soil loss in this system could amount to as high as 14.5 ton/ha/yr. it would be better to have a coconut-lanzones scheme that is rather protective (soil loss in 3.5 ton/ha/yr only) due to the permanent cover provided by lanzones trees which require no tillage.

Kaingin farming system was popularly known to be really erosive. Some reports point out that 15 tons/ha of soil loss can occur. Deforestation is reported to produce as much as 137-598 ton/ha/yr in Papua New Guinea and in the Cameroon highland.

If grasslands were to be burned, an appropriate time would be the onset of the dry season so that before erosive rain sets in, there will be enough crop cover to protect the soil and minimize soil erosion (2.30 ton/ha/yr).

Planting perennial trees like ipil-ipil and kakawate along the contour lines was found to improve soil conservation. UPLB-Program on Environmental Science and Management (PESAM) reported that there was a soil loss of 1.65 ton/ha in non-stripped plots while only 0.41 ton/ha was lost in plots with contour strips.

Some studies had brought out the losses of nutrients like nitrogen; phosphorus and potassium are greater due to run-off than eroded soil. This could be attributed to the water solubility of the available forms of these nutrients.

Soil erosion as a process directly affects productivity not only in hilly lands but also in the lowlands. However, it must be viewed as a physical condition with deeper roots enmeshed in the socio-political environment.

Problems on soil erosion in the Philippines and other countries in Asia and the Pacific have been worsening over the years. Although determinations of existing and potential erosion have been conducted utilizing widely different methods, in several countries, available evidence of the seriousness of the problem is convincing.

A broad view of soil erosion in tropical Asia is shown by El-Swaify, Dangler and Amsotrong (1982). Using a conservative sediment delivery ratio of 1.05, estimated values of 0.8 to 555 ton/ha was obtained. At the dangerous erosion levels were the river basin of Kosi, Damodar, Ganges.

Sanchi, Merilyn T. 1995. Effects of Intercropping on Soil Erosion during the Establishment of Citrus with Buffer Hedgerows in Benguet, Province. BSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

This study aimed to determine the effect of intercropping on runoff and soil less during the establishment of citrus with buffer hedgerows in Benguet, and to determine the growth and yield performance of intercrops grown during the establishment of citrus.

Based on the results, the fast growth of potato intercropped with citrus produced extensive ground cover, which dissipated raindrop energy and reduced the volume and velocity of runoff. The type of hedgerow and kind of intercrop did not have significant effect on runoff from August-November. However, the control plot (without hedgerow) had the highest runoff. The interaction effect between the type of hedgerow and kind of intercrop was found to be not significant. However, total soil loss was lowest from mulberry hedgerow intercropped with sweet potato. The plots of hedgerows significantly lowered runoff and soil loss. Moreover, with alnus hedgerows, the highest tuber yield of sweet potato and highest dry bean yield were obtained when intercropped with citrus.

The result of the study indicated opportunities for intercropping during the establishment of citrus, provided buffer hedgerows are included as a soil conservation measure. Under this condition, intercropping annual crops such as sweet potato is a good practice in preventing and controlling soil loss and surface runoff especially for sloping both production and protections of sloping lands while promoting environmental conservation.

Saplacio, Severo R. 1985. Soil and Water Conservation Studies. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines.

This paper reports the findings from studies conducted on surface run-off, soil erosion, evapotranspiration and stream flow. The studies had the following objectives: (a) monitor soil erosion and surface run-off from areas with different vegetation covers; (b) determine the different vegetation covers on soil erosion and (c) surface run-off production for the different vegetation covers; (d) evaluate the evapotranspiration rates of selected horticultural and forest species; (e) evaluate the relative drought resistance of these species; and (f) evaluate the streamflow regimes of three selected creeks and streams located in Mt. Makiling.

Surface runoff and erosion patterns from three vegetative covers generally followed a similar trend. Prediction equations for surface runoff and sediment yield were developed with high coefficient of determination (R2). Evapotranspiration rates of 10 selected horticultural and forest species for a period of three years were reported. Finally, the streamflow regimes of three important creeks and streams located in Mt. Makiling for a period of three years were reported.

Sharma, C. 1982. Magnitude of Soil Erosion as Affected by Type of Slope, Management Practice and Vegetal Cover (Study Conducted in the Philippines). Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines.

Soil loss and surface run-off as affected by type of slope (20 and 40%) and vegetal cover (monoculture of Zea maize L.), mixed cropping (Zea maize/Glycine max M.) and fallow were analyzed and evaluated in Mt. Makiling hillside farm. Thirty six erosion plots were constructed under 20% and 40% natural slope on surface run-off and soil loss. The effect of 40% slope on surface run-off and soil loss was significantly greater than at 20 percent slope. The types of vegetal cover affected significantly surface run-off but not soil loss under different management practices, vegetal cover, and type of slope. The higher the surface run-off, the greater the magnitude of soil loss. Overall result suggests that surface run-off and soil loss at 20 percent slope can be reduced by the adoption of zero tillage and planting corn as monocrop.

Turda, Angelito I. 1995. Some Biophysical Characteristics of Yakip Catchment in the Ambuklao Watersheds. MSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

Biophysical characteristics are extremely necessary for the efficient and effective operation of a catchment area.

Results of the study serve as benchmark information for planning and development of the Benguet Pine Forest. Mankind benefits from watershed stream flow. Stream flow is one of the concerns of water resources and watershed management.

The study described the stream flow of Yakip catchment and determined the effect of rainfall, temperature, relative humidity, sunshine duration, and evaporation to stream flow. Consequently, the two variable rainfall and sunshine duration were found to have significant effect on stream flow.

The water balance model and the Brooks Model were used in the computation of water balance and simulating other hydrologic variables of the Yakip Watershed for the year 1988 to 1990.

Biophysical characteristics such as vegetation, land use, soil, hydrology, and geomorphology were also determined. Maps were digitized and presented using GIS softwares.

The water balance model estimated stream flow at 12.36 mm in April while the highest was at 441 mm in June 1990. The mean estimated stream flow was 126.80 mm for the year 1988 to 1990. The Brooks Model shows that the lowest estimated stream flow was 11.90 mm in April 1989 while the highest was 1,308 mm in August 1990. The mean estimated stream flow was 213.37 mm for the year 1988 to 1990.

Ufano, Jessie V. 1990. Determination of Rainfall and Stream flow Patterns in a Gagged Mossy Forest Watershed. MSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

Mossy top forest of Central Cordillera has become a common site of gardening of upland farming because of rich thick humus or organic matter. These studies were conceived to assess the rainfall and stream flow pattern and relationships in this mossy forest watershed. The result of the study can provide baseline information in understanding the hydrology or mossy forest, specifically in the prediction of water yield.

This study intended to determine the rainfall and stream flow pattern of a mossy forest watershed from 1978 to 1980 at Mossy Forest Watershed Laboratory, Bauko, Mountain Province.

Results showed that both watersheds, Right Fork and Left Fork, had September and February as the highest and lowest monthly rainfall. It was on October 26, 1978, when the highest daily rainfall was recorded. The two watersheds fall under Type I climate. About 77.37 and 76.32 percent of the total rainfall were received by the Left Fork and Right Fork watersheds respectively during the rainy months, June to October.

The month of September had the greatest discharge in both watersheds, i.e. 1219.60 and 1683.65 cubic meters for the Left Fork and Right Fork respectively, or a monthly total of 2903.25 cubic meters. The month of March had the least discharge. The recorded peak occurred on November 6, 1980 with the total of 26704.40 and 19283.51 cubic meters for the Right Fork and Left Fork, respectively. The month of November in that year had the greatest discharge.

Rainfall and stream flow was significantly related. About 72.25% of the variation in stream flow was attributed to rainfall at the Right Fork Watershed as compared to 68.86% for the Left Fork Watershed.

The geomorphologic characteristics of the two watersheds such as the mean slope, stream density, mean elevation and exposure had slight differences unlike drainage density, watershed shape factor and local relief. The chemical composition of the soil at the Left Fork Watershed showed high organic content, acidic soil and sandy loam texture.

The Mossy Forest watershed has a diverse floristic composition consisting of two layers. The upper layer is composed of trees. The lower layer is composed of the shade – tolerant under story vegetations.

Ulban, Gedion A.1995. Survey of Different Types of Soil Erosion Occurring in Binga Watershed. MSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

Soil erosion is one of the major causes of forest denudation, murderous flashflood and river siltation in the country.

Binga watershed has a huge dam which depends on the river basin for water supply to generate hydro-electric power for Northern Luzon, Central Luzon and even Manila. This watershed is likewise the source of pine timber, forage for grazing and agricultural food crops. However, slash-and-burn farming, fuel wood gathering, grazing and other exploitative land use practices are very common in the watershed. This situation had resulted to a fast depletion of forest cover which in turn had led to rapid surface run-off, severe erosion, high siltation rate, floods and water pollution. With these existing facts and the mandate of watershed management principle to control erosion, there is a dire need to conduct a survey to determine the different erosion types.

The different soil erosion types occurring within the Binga watershed were sheet erosion, rill, gully, combined landslide and rill, and combined landslide and gully erosions. The average slope gradients were 37%; 86%; 104% 90.50% and 98.75%, respectively.

The land use practices found in the erosion sites were kaingin making, road constructing, pasturing, tree cutting and terracing. Most of the different types of soil erosion occurred on steep slopes with exposure oriented south, southwest, northeast or southeast. Textural grades were sandy loam and loamy sand types, and the dominant plant species found on eroded areas were Themeda triandra, Chromolaena odorata, Imperata cylindrical, Miscanthus senensis, Pennesitum polystachyon, Lantana camara and Pinus kesiya.

Recommendations includes rehabilitating the watershed; protecting it from fires, grazing and timber harvesting; engaging in extension work that involves information drives, community organizing, and communication system strengthening; and conducting research on plant dominance ratio within the watershed.

Veracion V. P. 1984. Watershed Management Practices Strategies and Extension Services in the Philippines. Compilation of Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road,Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines.

Present watershed management programs include agroforestry, the Forest Occupancy Management Program (FOM) and Small Water Impounding Management (SWIM). Agroforestry approaches include the modified “taungya” system, family approach, tree farming system, strip planting of trees and agronomic crops, mixed tree garden and live fences and posts planting scheme. Under the FOM, upland farmers within forest lands are assisted with agroforestation and other self-reliant livelihood projects in designated areas with soil and water conservation components. Under SWIM, construction of mini dams along natural channels or in small streams draining into big bodies of water, usually rivers, is done.

Proposed management strategies are: (a) species conversion and (b) management of phreatophytes. In the first strategy, where the desired primary product is water, water-saving plants (shallow-rooted species) are preferred as the major vegetative cover. In the second, vegetation types (phreatophytes) in flood plains, river or stream reaches should be properly managed because those can seriously affect water supply. With their deep penetrating roots, they pose serious flood hazards. Extension work in watershed management in the country has not gained significant momentum because extension services are under-financed, understaffed and under-equipped.

 

 

Technology Adoption

Agaid, Manuel D. 1993. Survey on the Upland Farming System: A Case Study of Barangay Ud-Udiao, Sallapadan, Abra. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Upland farming systems is now in the focus of sustainable development planning by the government. Information data, however, are not readily available for analysis to design upland development programs in the province of Abra particularly in barangay Ud-udiao, Sallapadan.

This study was conducted to characterize the upland farming system of barangay Ud-udiao, determine the inputs and outputs of the farms and determine the net benefits of the farm families.

Descriptive statistics was used in the study supplemented with graphs, tables and percentiles.

Thirty percent of the respondents were still in the active work force, 80% were married and 12% single. Small size (1-6) families dominated the area. The educational attainment of the respondents was high considering that the majority of the farmers obtained high school and college education. Most of the farmers had less than 0.5 hectare to cultivate.

Rice and corn were the main crops among the upland farmers. Other respondents practiced multiple cropping techniques. However, total clearing was observed and no trees were planted in their farm.

Majority (50.7%) of the farm labor was supplied by the members of each family for the farm labor requirements. The total average value of labor inputs per hectare was P3540.00. Outputs from the farm were mostly for home consumption and only a very little portion were sold and given as a gift.

Based on the financial analysis, the average net benefit obtained by the respondents was P122.86.00. On the other hand, economic analysis showed a higher income from farming with a value of P440.00

Based on the findings, the researcher recommends that collective effort between the local officials and agricultural development agencies should be made in the design systematic upland farming scheme/strategies and that upland farmers should adopt Agroforestry technology in the area.

Almoite, Orlando P. 1995. Factors Associated with Farmer’s Adoption of Agroforestry Technologies Under the ISFP in Region I. PhD Dissertation , Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

This study was conducted to find out the factors associated with the farmer’s adoption of AF technology under the Integrated Social Forestry Program of Region I. There were 368 respondents composed of 356 ISFP-farmer beneficiaries and 18 ISFP technicians. The data were gathered through an interview schedule for the farmers and a self-administered questionnaire for the ISFP technicians. The research design was the descriptive-survey and correlational types of research with frequency counts, percentage, weighted mean, standard deviation, chi-square, analysis of various t-test and correlation analysis.

The ISFP farmer-beneficiaries were aware of the AF technologies introduced in their communities. They were informed about these technologies by various government and private agencies led by the ISFP technicians and fellow farmers. Likewise, the ISFP technicians were very instrumental in providing the farmers with the needed skills in the use of technologies to provide their farming competencies. The principal reasons why the farmers adopt a technology were its being: profitable and advantageous, simple and practical, appropriate and compatible with community farming traditions and practices and cheap and ensure increase of income and better environment. In rejecting a technology, the farmers considered the following: laborious and expensive, very sophisticated, few farmers are using it and farm environments do not permit the use of the technology.

The four major factors that have direct and positive effect on the adoption of the AF technology were: (1) farmer factors such as: farming experience, education, income, source of farm finance, tenure status, family size, age, and farm size; (2) technology factors, e.g. profitable and advantageous, simple and practical, appropriate with farming practices, compatible with community norms, beliefs values, etc., and cheap and ensures increase of income and better environment; (3) change agent factors, credibility, technical expertise, social acceptability, interest and attitude toward works, communication skills and area of assignment; and (4) intervening factors such as: market and prices, credit facilities, form environment, infrastructure, and support services, farming incentives, politics, peace and order and community values.

The decision–making pattern followed by the farmers in the adoption and rejection of a technologies followed a situational and a uniform trend. However, the “farmer alone” usually made the final decision. In their rating scores, both the respondents (farmers and technicians) rated their problems “more serious.”

The weighted pooled mean scores of 3.48 of their evaluation of the technology adoption were under the lower limit of category “usually adopted.” This means that despite of the loopholes and limitations of the ISFP in its implementation, the farmer considered the adoption and utilization of AF technologies as a part of the program. With regard to the comparison of their evaluation of technology adoption, the t-test showed no significant differences, which implies that both respondents had the same perception.

For the correlation analysis of farmer socio-economic characteristics and AF technologies, 11 of the variables were positively and negatively correlated. Positively correlated were age, income, family size, education, tenure status, size of ISFP farms, size of other landholdings, farm finance and farming experience.

This study provided substantial evidences that the farmer, technologies, change agents and intervening factors each taken as a whole were significant determinants affecting the success of the AF technologies in upland under ISFP of Region I. Thus, in achieving better adoption process of AF technologies under the ISFP, Region I, it is recommended that the above-mentioned factors should be critically considered.

Avila, Teodora N. Socio-cultural and Correlates of Farming Systems at Bagong Silang, Los Baños. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines.

The study described the farming systems in Bagong Silang, Los Baños situated within the Mt. Makiling Forest Reserve, and the socio-cultural and economic circumstances of the farmers. It also examined the extent to which socio-cultural and economic variables were associated with farming systems identified. Structured interview schedules were used in gathering data for both the preliminary investigation phase and the formal survey phase of the study. Unstructured interviews with the Barangay captain and other key informants were also conducted. Upland farmers who were household heads composed the respondents of the study. Generally, the respondents belonged to the middle-age group, had low level of educational attainment and had mean annual gross income of P16, 405.70. Cropping systems served as the basis for classifying farming systems in the area since other components such as livestock production and involvement in non-and – off – farm enterprises play relatively minor roles as compared to crop production. There were four cropping systems in the area, namely: intercropped annuals (A), intercropped perennials (IP), intercropped annuals and perennials (IAP), intercropped annuals, and intercropped perennials (IAIP). The intercropped annual was treated as special category since there were only two respondents adopting it. Thus, quantitative and qualitative analyses were focused on the other tree cropping systems. Of the 24 variables tested for association with farming systems, only four were found to be significant using the chi-square method. These were: family life cycle stage, interaction with neighbors, identification and interaction with leaders in the community and size of land cultivated.

Respondents in the beginning and contracting stages of family life cycle adopted the IP cropping systems, while those in the expanding and the retirement sages adopted the IAP system. Respondents who interacted with neighbors in social and economic terms adopted the IAP and the IAAI cropping systems, while those who interacted with neighbors on social terms adopted the IP cropping systems. Respondents who had interaction only with the barrio captain as well as the councilors adopted the IAP or IAIP cropping system. Respondents with large size of land for cultivation adopt the IA, IP and IAP cropping system, while those with small land size cultivated adopted the IAIP cropping combination. The qualitative analysis of the study showed that variables such as: use of hired labor, number of farm parcels owned, household size, and ethno-linguistic identification of respondents also affected variations of farming systems in the area.

Baril, Ma. Theresa. 1995. Environmental Changes and Resource Use Patterns Among the Aetas in the Kanawan Reservation Area, Morong, Bataan. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines.

The study was conducted to describe and analyze the resource use pattern (RUP) of the Aeta in Kanawan Reservation Area in Morong, Bataan as a result of environmental changes that have taken place, primarily shrinking forest areas and the penetration of market economy.

The methodologies used were participant observation, key informant interview and household interview. The Aeta traditional resource use pattern mainly consisted of wildlife trapping, forest products gathering and swidden farming. As traced to their resource use history, they had not fully abandoned these traditional subsistence strategies. Instead, they employed a diverse resource use pattern by engaging in more than one strategy and by utilizing both the forest and farm zones of their ecosystem. Their shift from swidden to sedentary farming, however, was brought about by ecological (deforestation), economic (market forces) and socio-cultural (land tenure insecurity) factors.

Resource use patterns among the 35 households in Kanawan still varied in terms of the dominance of non-traditional activities (such as sedentary farming and wage labor) introduced to them by the lowlanders over traditional ones (like trapping and gathering). The pure Aeta families tended to diversify by combining the traditional activities. The non-Aeta families were fully devoted to non-traditional activities. Their resource use patterns were also found to be directly related to their degree of market linkage, defined here as the extent by which production and consumption is oriented to the market for obtaining basic needs as measured by four indicators, a) source of inputs, b) labor source, c) disposal of products, and d) dependency ration. The pure Aeta, mixed Aeta and non-Aeta households were found to have a low, medium and high degree of market linkage, respectively. Thus, the findings indicate that those who were engaged more in traditional and/or non-traditional strategies like the pure and mixed Aeta were less market-oriented than those who were fully devoted to non-traditional activities like the non-Aeta.

Bautista, Angelina G. et.al. 1985. Acceptance of Farmers of the Different Cultural Requirements of Corn and Sorghum Production in Mindanao. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines.

A total of 400 small-scale corn farmers and 372 sorghum farmers from the provinces of South Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat, Davao Del Norte, Agusan Del Sur and North Cotabato were interviewed. The cultural acceptance of 15 recommended cultural practices in each package of technology for corn and sorghum were determined.

Majority of the farmers derived information on cultural requirements, farm management and diseases control from the radio and pamphlets. Majority of the corn farmers had attended trainings, seminars and farm meetings with extension workers. Only about one third of the sorghum farmers had similar opportunities. Of the 15 recommended cultural practices, 11 for corn and 12 for sorghum were rated high in terms of compatibility, relative advantages, observability and simplicity. Farmers for both sorghum need further trainings/seminars on some identified cultural practices such as the use of high yielding verities, furrow, spacing, land preparation, soil testing, fertilizer application, and weed/pest disease control.

Factors that significantly affected acceptance of corn technology based on the Pearsonian test of correlation were the farmer attributes (household size, farming experiences, etc.) situational factors (farm size, transport means, availability of farm inputs and peace and order situation) and technological attributes (compatibility advantage, simplicity and applicability of recommended technologies). For sorghum technology, factors for acceptance were exposure to extension workers, cosmopoliteness, rationality in decision-making, aspiration level, size of farm, availability of farm inputs, peace and order, degree of compatibility, relative advantage, and observability and simplicity of the recommended practices. Factor such as farmer attribute was situational to acceptance of recommended sorghum technology.

Bornales, Romeo G. Jr. 1994. Adoption of Social Forestry Technologies in Pagkalinawan, Jala-jala, Rizal: An Assessment of Some Related Factors and Selected Case Studies of Adoption Dynamics. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines.

This study investigated the dynamic of adoption of the recommended social forestry technologies in the learning site of the Department of Social Forestry of the University of the Philippines, Los Baños in Pagkalinawan, Jala-jala, Rizal. It generally aimed to determine the status of the farmer’s adoption of the technologies introduced by the Social Forestry Action Research Project staff. Specifically, it tried to: (a) identify the technologies initially and continually adopted by the farmers; (b) determine the socio-economic, physical, institutional and technical factors associated with their continued adoption of the technologies, and; (c) describe the changes in the technologies they adopted and explain the factors associated with these changes.

From the 139 total identified members of the Pagkalinawan Farmers’ Association, 58 were randomly selected to constitute the respondents of this study. These respondents were interviewed using a semi-structured interview schedule. Data analysis was performed using descriptive statistics and Spearman Rank Correlation.

Findings of the study showed that of the five technologies introduced, contour farming was the most popularly adopted by the farmers, while livestock production (goat dispersal) was the least adopted by them. Continuance of the adoption of contour farming was significantly correlated to members’ attendance to the organization’s regular meetings. Family labor availability was significantly correlated to the continuance of adoption of planting a new crops and livestock production. A negative correlation between farm size and continued adoption of pest control was also found. The farmers’ perception was likewise significantly correlated to their continued adoption of the planting of new crops and used of pest control.

Moreover, two categories of continuance of adoption of social forestry technologies were identified from the selected case studies. These were: keeping the technology in the farm where it was initially adopted; and, duplication of the technology adapted from one farm to another.

Changes in the technology were apparently due to two incompatibilities: that of maintaining contour farming and planting of mongo; and, that of contour farming and planting of light-demanding annual crops.

Calanog, Lope A. and M.A. Vienna O. Austria. 1991. Extension Strategies for the Adoption of Agroforestry Farming Systems in Selected Areas in the Philippines. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

A structured interview schedule was employed in the study to elicit responses among randomly selected ISF participants in the various upland areas of the country. A total of 1,015 respondents were interviewed and their responses were analyzed to determine the extension strategies association in the adoption of agroforestry farming practices.

Through informal talks and interviews with the farmers, it was learned that not all of the farmer-respondents were aware and interested in agroforestry. Although some of them evaluated and tried agroforestry, not all of them actually adopted and incorporated these in their farming systems. Of the total number of respondents, 856 or 84 % were aware of the term agroforestry; 827 or 81 % got interested in it; 826 or 81% evaluated the advantages and disadvantages of the system while 798 or 79% actually tried it; and only 77% of this number finally adopted agroforestry.

Similarly, the survey revealed that the adoption of agroforestry technology depended so much on the government extension workers, particularly the DENR-ISF technicians who were found out to be the primary sources of agroforestry information. On the other hand, the local officials in the community, the radio, newspaper, and to some extent television, were mentioned as secondary sources.

Correlation analysis using Chi-square test showed that diffusion or the ultimate adoption of agroforestry technology is not affected in any way, by age, sex, religion, civil status, ethnic group and educational attainment of the farmers.

Calub, Blesilda M. 1996. Enhancing the Adoption of Agroforestry Technologies. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines.

The economic and ecological importance of agroforestry in upland development is well documented. Yet, despite the aggressive promotion by both government and other development agencies, the adoption of agroforestry remains unsatisfactory. The paper attempts to provide some reasons that may have kept farmers from adopting the system. Among other things, their reason may include one or a combination of the following factors: (a) tenurial rights and benefit sharing, (b) labor allocation, (c) tree management, (d) size of land holding, and (e)

time element.

The challenge for the development workers is to understand the farmers’ situation and start from there. Creation of market demands will encourage farmers to go into agroforestry. Providing access to tree seedlings, farm implements and soil conditioners including timely technical advice is another way to encourage them. Moreover, a more participatory and people- centered approach where farmers involved as partners and not as mere recipients of technologies should be adopted.

Castillo, Elvira R. 1991. The Adoption of Agroforestry Technology: The Case of the Hilly Land Household. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

This study attempted to determine the consequences of the new agroforestry technology on the social structure of the hilly land community and to identify the factors associated with the adoption of the agroforestry technology. Conducted in Bacsil North, Laoag, Ilocos Norte, the study included a complete enumeration of 85 agroforestry beneficiaries in the two communities.

The roles of the households members were as follows: (1) the household was mainly responsible in conducting buyers of farm produce and hauling products while some of the wife’s traditional roles changed considerably as more opportunities to earn income were brought about by the agroforestry project: (2) the male and female children helped in agroforestry activities such as clearing, pruning, harvesting, and seedling preparation, among other activities; (3) with the introduction of the agroforestry project, grandparents were given the role of child caring, which they resented. The hilly land household were involved in similar groupings such as “uma”, “anup”, “tagnawa”, “aruga” “buras” to mention a few. After the introduction of the agroforestry technology project, there was an increase in the household who claimed to have improved their economic status and parents who had higher aspiration on the future of their children. Adoption of the agroforestry technology project brought about some changes in the community such as the kinds of housing materials and lighting facilities, used sources of drinking water, types of toilet, and kinds of roads. However, not all of these changes were attributed to the introduction of agroforestry technology project but also to other government countryside development programs.

Adoption of agroforestry technology projects was found significantly related to the number of technical changes, number of species planted in the project, and number of organizational affiliations. Age, civil status, length or residence in the community and position in the agroforestry organization were found related to the family type. Attitudes towards innovation and aspirations regarding children, farming as livelihood and community life were found related to the adoption of agroforestry technology project. Socio-economic and physiological characteristic of hilly land households influenced their adoption of a new technology, which consequently catered changes in the social structures as exemplified by the emergence of new roles.

The study concluded that given the introduction of agroforestry technology and the socio-economic and physiological factors, changes in the social structure occurred which brought about socio-economic and physiological consequences.

Catelo, Salvador P., Edita D. Abuel and Rolando A. Lim. 1985. Farming Systems Development in Rainfed Areas. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

One hundred fifty farmers from the municipalities of Calapan, Naujan and Victoria in Oriental Mindoro were interviewed to determine the recent farming system developments in rainfed areas and the factors associated with them. Rice-based, rice-livestock-based, corn-based, fruit-based and coconut-based farming systems were identified. Findings showed that farming systems development that took place from 1973 to 1983 was minimal. In 1983, 59% of the respondents realized the importance of diversified farming and raised a combination of crops and/or livestock. The use of high yielding varieties became common among rice farmers. Corn farmers, however, still used the traditional varieties. Seed treatment and use of tractor in land preparation were not popularly accepted. Fertilizer and pesticide application in all types of farms increased from 1973 to 1978. It decreased, however, in 1983 when prices of these farm inputs increased. The mechanical thresher was the most utilized farm machinery, utilization of which increased from 50 percent in 1973 to 94 percent in 1983. Weed control was done manually and sometimes through rotary weeders. Management practices in poultry and livestock raising hardly changed; the animals were fed with grains and farm by-products. Vaccination was the only modern technology widely practiced. The desire to increase production and income was the most important economic factor that influenced farmers to change farming systems. Lack of capital, however, prevented them from adopting modern practices. Physical factors like climate and availability of water greatly affected farming systems development. Twenty-seven percent of the respondents received assistance from government agencies particularly the Ministry of Agriculture and Food (now the Department of Agriculture) regarding modern methods of farming.

Clarete, Celso L. 1984. Improvement of Productivity and Utilization of Southern Mindanao Rainfed Areas through Effective Cropping System Technology. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines.

This work focused on the idea of increasing utilization of Southern Mindanao rainfed areas through the improvement of existing cropping system practices of rainfed farmers. To carry out the above concept, a

survey was conducted to determine among others the practices to be improved. Survey results were made the bases of establishing study 2, entitled cropping pattern testing experiment. Because of the need to investigate the possibility of conserving the accumulated soil moisture for the dry season crop using resources and techniques right in the farmers’ field, study 3 was conducted.

Of the 222 non-supervised rainfed farms that were surveyed in 1982; 26, 63 and 11 percent were single, double and triple-cropped, respectively. Profits obtained ranged from P2, 190 to P2, 625 per hectare per year. Because of the limited soil moisture available towards the end of the dry season and the lack of locally based cropping system technology, farmers dared not to plant a second or third crop. The cropping index averaged at 55 and 60.9 percent for rainfed lowland and upland

areas, respectively. Other causes of variation in the cropping index of rainfed areas were explained in the text.

Legumes or corn planted in rotation with sorghum followed by a sorghum ratoon showed a considerable improvement in the utilization and productivity of dry rainfed areas in the region.

Obtained profits differed among the six sorghum-based cropping patterns tested under rainfed condition. Peanut-sorghum mungbean-sorghum and corn-sorghum patterns were 146, 80 and 52 percent higher than what had been obtained in the traditional farmers’ cropping pattern of corn-corn.

Micro-environment of sorghum planted during the dry season was improved through mulching and fertilization as evidenced in the grain yield components. Considerable amount of soil moisture, reduced weed population and extensive root system were observed in mulched sorghum.

Partial budget analysis on the use of rice straw mulch and fertilizer in sorghum production revealed encouraging results.

Implications and recommendations as presented were based on the findings and conclusions of the studies.

Corpuz, Eumelia B. 1986. A Comparative Economic Study of Traditional Kaingin, Modified Cropping Patterns and Tree Farming in Mt. Makiling. Compilation of Research Abstracts, UPLB College of Forestry, Laguna, Philippines

The study aimed primarily to assess and compare the economic viability and sustainable productivity of traditional kaingin, modified cropping patterns and tree farming. The specific objectives were: (1) to compare the levels of production inputs and the corresponding output and income of the three cropping systems: traditional kaingin, modified cropping patterns and tree farming; (2) to compare their profitability; and (3) to describe the externalities brought about by the cropping systems.

A two-fold procedure was done to meet the objectives of this study. The first part was based from the real situation of three cropping systems in Mt. Makiling with the use of the case study method. The techniques used were personal interview, record keeping, participant-observation, photography and prepared questionnaire. The second part involved the use of existing and secondary data such as documented literatures and results from different studies.

The farm business analysis was employed to determine the present levels of net farm income in the traditional kaingin and modified cropping patterns. The cost and return analysis using existing and secondary data was applied in determining the net income per hectare. Net present worth (NPW), benefit cost ratio (BCR) at 18% interest rate within a nine-year analysis period was used to determine profitability. Externalities due to cropping systems were described.

The average net farm income in the traditional kaingin was P3,000/farm/year and a net farm loss of P3,122/farm/year in the modified cropping patterns. However, at 1980 prices the average net income from the annuals in the traditional kaingin was P3,556/ha/yr while P4,820/ha/yr was attained from the modified cropping patterns.

The average NPW (P17, 674) at 18% interest rate within nine-year period was higher in the modified cropping pattern than in the traditional kaingin (P16, 662). At P55/cu.m. stumpage price, the NPW was negative while at P125/cu.m. the NPW was P1,185.

The average BCR (1.99) was higher in the traditional kaingin than modified cropping patterns (1.46) because of the difference in cost structure. At P98/m3, the BCR of the giant ipil-ipil was equal to one. The IRR was 24.53% at a stumpage price P125/cu.m.

The costs of fertilizers needed to bring back the original fertility of the soil were negligible. The use of buffer strips of giant ipil-ipil and kakawate in the modified cropping patterns was more effective in conserving soil nutrients than the traditional kaingin.

Cramb, R.A.and R.V. Gerrits.1997. The Adoption of Conservation Farming Technology in the Case Study Villages. Compilation of Research Abstracts , SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines.

The seven project case study sites were: Tabayag and Guba in Cebu; Pananag, Davao Del Sur; Managok, Bukidnon; Salogon, Palawan; Magdungao, Iloilo; and Domang, Nueva Vizcaya. These study sites represented a sample of the better resourced and more successful projects, yet in general, adoption rate was low and diffusion beyond the project site was almost non-existent.

This paper examined the process of adoption of conservation farming technologies such as contour hedgerows, within the seven study sites focusing on the attributes of the farms–household which influence the adoption process, and the consequences of adoption of the farm- household level. This also aimed to analyze who adopted and what were the consequences for them. The factors affecting adoption were: (1) adopters’ attributes which included personal attributes, farm attributes (adoption more likely in larger farms; fields’ physical features like slope, distance from homestead, terrain erosion hazard, rockiness, field size, orientation, spatial arrangement and land tenure; tenancy which usually discouraged adoption) and perception of soil erosion which suggests emphasis on farmer education and about the processes and impacts of soil erosion and (2) farm-level consequences of adoption which included the faming system, food supplies and cash income.

Though farmers were aware of the necessity and usefulness of the conservation farming technologies, still project intervention is needed to get the adoption process going because this is often constrained by farmers’ specific circumstances. Therefore, there is still a need to pursue adaptive research and extension strategies to better accommodate the range of farmers’ goals and circumstances.

Cramb, R.A. and G.C. Saguiguit Jr. Socio- Economic Evaluation of Soil Conservation Technologies for Upland Farming System in the Philippines: Project Overview. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

The problem of land degradation and deforestation in the uplands results to increasing research effort to generate technologies for sustainable agricultural and agroforestry systems. However, the rate of adoption has been low with different reasons such as inappropriateness and the socio-economic and institutional constraints.

Thus, socio-economic research is needed to provide an improved understanding to these constraints to the adoption of soil conservation technology.

This project approaches the problem on soil conservation from a farming system perspective. Farming system research has been characterized as: (1) farmer-oriented, (2) systems-oriented, (3) problem-solving (4) multi-disciplinary, (5) involving on-farm research. (6) providing feedback from farmers, (7) complementary to mainstream research and (8) iterative and dynamic.

Generally, the study aimed to improve the flow of appropriate soil conservation technology to upland farmers in the Philippines by providing feedback from farmers to researchers and policymakers regarding the factors like how to promote technology adoption.

In this research, the guiding hypothesis is that upland farmers are intentionally rational in their choice of technology. They choose a technology to further their goals, subject to the constraints imposed by resource availability and environmental conditions.

The basic method as derived from feedback phase of farming systems research involves monitoring and evaluation. The research has the following overlapping phases: (1) review and synthesis of published and unpublished literature and other data on upland agriculture; (2) planning workshop and selection or research sites; (3) rapid appraisal of farming system at research sites; (4) on-going monitoring and evaluation of sites; and (5) analyses.

The reason for the slow rate of adoption was the mismatch between introduced technologies and farmers’ circumstances. Rapid appraisal provided feedback and the basis for developing a general procedure to assess the technology and priorities of uplands.

Dhungel, Mohan Prasad. 1995. A Case Study of Community Forestry Practices in Sagada, Mountain Province. MSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

The forest in the Philippines decreased so rapidly in the past few decades due to many factors, such as fires/kaingin, pests and diseases, illegal logging activities, etc. With the unsuccessful reforestation programs of the government and further destruction of remaining forest cover, rapid encroachment and cultivation of forested areas, a socially viable and accepted forestry program should be initiated. Existing successful community forestry under the government that exists should therefore be studied and documented to determine their viability for adoption.

The study was conducted to (1) identify the indigenous forest management practice, (2) assess the existing community forestry practice in Sagada, (3) assess the role of Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), and (4) find out people’s participation in existing community forestry practice. The data were gathered from 108 local respondents from Sagada and 29 DENR personnel from Sagada, Bontoc, Sabangan and Baguio Regional office.

Indigenous forestry practice known as lakon or komunal were managed similarly, with that of the community forest except on some customary laws on punishment.

Community forestry activities practiced in Sagada involved the following: sequence committee formation, management plan preparation, plantation establishment and forest protection.

DENR activities was found significantly related to peoples participation in plantation establishment and forest protection. Thus, the presence of DENR can increase people’s participation in the establishment of plantation and protection forest. The dissatisfaction with the DENR centered on insufficient technical assistance, extension service and financial support.

The result shows that most people were participating in the development of community/clan forest management in Sagada. The respondents were highly participating especially in plantation establishment and forest protection. Highly educated people, however, had a greater degree of participation in forest protection.

Fujisaka, Sam. 1990. Participation by Farmers, Researches and Extension Workers in Soil Conservation. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines.

Human settlement in the upland is inevitable. It is considered as one of the major causes of the loss of forest resources in the humid tropics. Consequent environmental problems such as watershed degradation, soil erosion and nutrient depletion, to name a few, had been drastically reducing both upland and lowland productivity. The urgency to counter these problems and seek environmental stability draws research and development efforts to integrate farmers and upland resources through improved cropping.

This paper looked into the different projects implemented for widespread adoption of soil conservation technologies. It analyzed the successful adoption though four variables, namely: (1) technology failures, (2) farmers participation in both problem definition and technology choice, (3) farmer participation in technology generation and adaptation, and (4) farmers participation in technology transfer.

The research finally identified the essential elements in the adoption process and priorities in model making as a product of the analysis. However, it is clear that the critical component was participation. Farmer-participation in research and extension is a necessary condition for adoption to occur. And this participation should be built into the whole process.

Garrity, Dennis P. 1992. Conservation Farming Systems for the Sloping Lands: Research and Development Imperatives. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines.

The sloping uplands are the most extensive of ecosystems in Southeast Asia (60-90% of the nations area), and the most threatened. The rapid increase in small scale farms with insecure land tenure, whose primary imperative is the production of a family food supply, resulted in cereal-based farming systems on acid infertile soils in the uplands that are highly unsustainable. The process was associated with massive deforestation and land degradation. Soil losses greatly exceeded those of other areas of the world. This paper discussed the critical agricultural sustainability issues, the technologies being evolved to meet those needs, and the unique ways in which research must be organized to address the problems comprehensively.

Sustainable food crops systems on slopes requires: (1) simple, effective soil erosion control on open fields, through vegetative barriers and residue management; (2) mineral nutrient importation to balance crop nutrient off take, and stimulate greater biological N fixation; and (3) enterprise diversification towards mixed farming systems that include ruminant animals and perennials. The Southeast Asian regional ecological gradient progressively reduces the number of protected land use options as one proceeds to the Equatorial region northward.

A model of the evolutionary development of the small scale upland farm that follows a trajectory of diversification is discussed. More predictive models will be needed to better guide research. The experience in the past 15 years with alley cropping and contour hedgerow indicates that there is a wide range of choices in hedgerow enterprises that are effective in soil conservation, including trees, grasses, and perennials. The appropriate choice for a given farm depends on soil and environmental conditions, farm size, labor availability, markets and farmer objectives. Potential hedgerow-crop competition is a constraint on acid soils. The use of natural filter strips is an alternative approach that deserves increased attention. In shifting cultivation systems, the management of fallow vegetation is the relevant issue. Leguminous cover crops are candidates for managed fallows but practical management systems incorporating them require more agronomic refinement.

Research relevant to the sloping lands will involve more emphasis on the enterprise linkages that are important for resource-poor farmers. Systems research that focuses on the sloping uplands ecosystem is a key to eventual success in understanding the interrelatedness of the problems across sectors, and in developing the capacity within each country to conceptualize, to plan and to implement appropriate interventions. This will require a new upland ecosystem-based approach in international and national research.

Gerrits, R.V., N.M. Garcia and R.A. Cramb. 1997. Hedgerows Adoption in Hinterland of Cebu City: A Reconnaissance Survey. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines.

As a part of the SEARCA-UQ Uplands Research Project output that has been evaluating upland farmers’ adoption of soil conservation technologies, reconnaissance survey of the Mag-Uugmad foundation Inc. (MFI) Guba site was pursued to investigate the phenomenal adoption of soil and water conservation technologies in the area. Key informant interview/s and farm walks were conducted in the various localities to determine the reason behind such high levels of farmer adoption of recommended technologies and to determine whether the farmers are at the core of the project maintaining the adopted technologies on their farms.

Survey results provided hard information regarding Mag-uumad Foundation’s recommended soil conservation technologies and extension system, the biophysical and socio-economic environment of the upland barangay, and the status of the farmers’ adoption and utilization of the recommended technologies. The information was used in analyzing reasons for success and sustainability. Thus, it was concluded that the successful and widespread adoption of conservation technologies was due to the interaction of site specific factors (community interaction, stable land tenure, increasing accessibility and market linkages leading to commercialization and farming system evolution) appropriate extension system (farmers to farmer extension, traditional labor exchange system) and appropriate technologies.

Gomez, Arturo A. The Adoption of Multiple Cropping in Selected Communities in the Philippines. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

Six barrios in Laguna and Batangas, namely: Bilogbilog, Marinig, Baclaran-Gulod, Bagong Pook, Bagumbayan Callos and San Fransisco were chosen to study the possible technical and socio-economic problems associated with the adoption of intensive cropping systems.

From the six barrios, several receptive farmers were selected to spearhead the planting of new crops in non-rice areas. Several incentives await the farmers, namely: availability of credit when needed, availability of seeds crops, immediate technical advice, and arranged market contracts between farmers and nearby processing plants, and arranged farmer visits to experiment stations and other areas planting crops of interest.

Results show that in most of the rice areas, planted to a second crop, the net profit and actual man days spent in the area had more than doubled. It was also learned that a wide variety of crops could be grown after rice, provided that the water is available. Several Instances were recorded wherein the net income was negative and other farmers have actually lost some of their own money.

Another development was the establishment of different institutions that improved participants’ credit and marketing facilities. Institutions established were the credit facilities, barrio associations, and markets for new products. Results were encouraging as many farmers participated and the amount barrowed was substantial. Joint loans from the bank, equipments rental and collection, members’ loan approvals, procurement of farm inputs, field trips field days and record keeping are other activities that resulted after.

Laron, Violeta M. 1983. A Survey on Kaingin Practices and Problems in the Three Municipalities of La Union. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Rosario, La Union, Philippines

Kaingin practices or shifting cultivation is a problem especially in the upland and it is considered to be a major cause of forest destruction.

The study was conducted to determine the reasons for engaging in kaingin, the practices used by the kaingineros, and the problems they encountered. A total of 246 kaingineros were interviewed in the study with a mean age of 49.82. Majority of the respondents finished elementary and some were undergraduates.

The mean number of years the respondents were engaged in kaingin was 21.23 with an average area of 1.94 hectares. Fifty three percent (53%) of the respondents were full-time kaingineros with an average annual income of P1, 011.70.

There were four reasons cited by the respondents why they engaged in kaingin making; first, it is the only source of income; second, unavailability of agricultural land; third, lack of employment and fourth; it is a common practice in the locality.

There were four practices employed by the kaingineros, the slash-and-burn method, the use of firelines before burning, the contour farming and the total burning of the area. The main kaingin crops were rice, corn, beans, cassava, sorghum and ampalaya while secondary crops were banana, fruit trees, ipil-ipil and gabi-gabi.

There were six problems cited by the kaingineros: lack of water, pests and diseases, poor road condition, lack of capital, lack of working tools and poor market road outlet. Majority of the respondents were already engaged in kaingin for about 15-19 years; those engaged in kaingin from 5-9 years were considered illegitimate.

Based on the findings of the study, concerned government agencies should provide alternative livelihood opportunity to the kaingineros to generate employment. Extension services should also be fully rendered to them informing them about the tangible benefits derived from the forest; the concept of Agroforestry should also be introduced to be supervised closely by agroforesters.

Lucero, Gabriel V. 1999. Adoption of Agroforestry System by Upland Farmers of Benguet as Influenced by their Perception. PhD Dissertation, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

Agroforestry is considered as a tool to uplift the living conditions of upland farmers. This research determined how upland farmers look at the agroforestry systems and how their perceptions influenced the adoption of the system.

Results showed that the respondents were formally educated, had small families and a low monthly household income. Farming was the main source of livelihood. The majority, who had been farming for a long time, owned and operated small agroforestry farm areas.

Swidden was prevalent before agroforestry systems were introduced. Indigenous agroforestry systems were also employed even before agroforestry systems were learned. The dominant Agroforestry system that has been learned and fully adopted was terracing using hedgerow species, and partially adopted was alley cropping or Sloping Agricultural Land Technology (SALT).The primary reason for adopting agroforestry technologies is that they are suitable in the sloping areas of the respondents. The main reason for those who have not adopted them is that they do not own the land that they are cultivating. Generally, there were favorable attitudes towards and a good level of perception of agroforestry systems. The majority were aware and believed in the advantages of agroforestry systems. Most were knowledgeable of the concept and application of agroforestry but are not knowledgeable of the role of legume trees and shrubs in an agroforestry system.

Nine out of the 11 variables on farmer factors positively correlated with adoption. However, sex, age, number of children, number of years in farming, awareness and belief significantly correlated with adoption of agroforestry technologies.

Conducting a diagnosis-and-design approach through researches on agroforestry patterns involving farmers, education and training on the role of legume trees and shrubs, provision of support and services and the integration of indigenous knowledge systems of the farmers on agroforestry systems are recommended.

Michon, Genevieve and Hubert de Foresta. Agoforests: An Original Agroforestry Model from Smallholder Farmers for Environmental Conservation and Sustainable Development. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines.

Agroforests are defined as complex agroforestry systems which look like and function as natural forest ecosystems, but are integrated into agricultural management systems. Their conception, their management and their economic and environmental qualities, clearly differentiate them for better known: simple; Agroforestry associations as alley cropping, intercropping or hedgerow systems.

Different types of agroforests are conceived and managed by farmers over the Indonesian archipelago. Most of them evolved from shifting cultivation systems in forest areas. They appear in various forms and imply very different components from a region to another, but all exhibit the same fundamental ecological, technical and socio-economic qualities, such as soil protection, biodiversity conservation, use of simple techniques and technologies, high compatibility with local knowledge and representation systems, provision of good levels of monetary income, high returns to labor.

Osngao, Demson et al. 2004. Land–Use Change in Sitio Sawmill, Mount Data, Bauko, Mt. Province. BSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

This study was conducted to obtain relevant information about the land-use changes during the last decade and on the present agricultural land use in Sitio Sawmill, Mt. Data, Mt. Province. It primarily served as a predictive toll in the land use change dynamics specifically in the conversion of forest lands to agricultural land.

The study aimed to determine the land use change that occurred and its perceived impacts in terms of crop productivity level and fertility status as well as siltation of rivers.

The prevailing land use change between forest land and agricultural land was studied through actual measurements. These approximate measurements demonstrated that the area of the former forest that was opened to new cultivated land was 22,918.78 m2 and the present agricultural land area is 20,919.82 m2. The computed ratio exhibited a significant change at 10.913. The former forest cover that was converted to a newly opened agricultural area had a conversion efficiency of 91.3%. The remaining 8.7% had gone to waste.

A decrease in crop productivity was perceived by a significant number of respondents and was primarily due to pests and diseases, typhoons, and lack of irrigation. The soils physical and chemical properties have shown comparable values both for the agricultural and forest soils such as soil texture, bulk density, percent porosity, organic matter and nitrogen.

K and P contents exhibited higher values due to the continuous and heavy application of organic matter (chicken dung) and inorganic fertilizers such as complete fertilizer. The soil texture of the agricultural and forest land obtained was loam.

The observed siltation in rivers denotes that intensive cultivation as perceived by most of the respondents was the main cause. Because of the sediments, there was change in the river depth at present compared to the depth ten years ago and thus caused turbidity.

The study recommends conservation measures and rehabilitation program should be strictly implemented in the area to effectively protect the mossy forest from destructive forces.

Quezada, Gaudencio Q. 1982. The Practices of Kaingin Making in the Municipality of Burgos La Union. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Kaingin making is a complex socio-economic problem with underlying causes such as increasing population and immigration, lack of employment opportunities, need for food, inability of suitable land for agricultural purposes and illiteracy. It has been singled out as one of the primary factors that have contributed to the alarming rate of forest denudation in the country.

This study was conducted from December 1981 to February 1982 to determine the extent of kaingin making, problems and practices of kaingineros in the municipality of Burgos, La Union in order to formulate effective solution to their needs and problems. Set of questionnaires were used to gather the needed data supplemented by interview. The statistical tools used in the analysis of the data were percentages, averages and ranking.

Result showed that the main reason why the kaingineros engaged in kaingin is that it is their only source of income for the family. Some also cited lack of employment and limited space for agricultural lands.

The respondents followed the usual practice of slash- and- burn method to clear the area for kaingin making. Construction of fire lines before burning was also observed. Of the 160 respondents, 139 planted bananas as the main crop followed by root crops, tiger grass, vegetables, rice, pineapple and corn.

Majority of the respondents cited natural calamities as the primary problem in the area. However, some destructions were caused by pests and diseases and grazing animals. Lack of water and working materials, lack of capital and stealing were also problems they encountered.

Singson, Remedios B. 2000. Farming Systems in Kalinga: An Analysis. PhD Dissertation, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

Farming systems approach is thought of as bringing a new perspective to existing task or situations. These approaches seek to improve the farmer’s technical viability in the field, economic profitability and risk consideration and the resource endowment fit of the technology considered within the farming systems. More importantly, farming approach is considered a good alternative to agricultural development in the light of a rapidly deteriorating ecological balance.

To document the existing farming practices in the three municipalities of lower Kalinga was the objective of the study. The study determined the social and bio-physical factors in the systems; the prevailing practices; the extent of productivity and perceived effect of said practices in relation to profitability/economic viability, acceptability, environmental friendliness and sustainability; and the problems and concerns of 700 farmers.

A number of farmers still adhered to some of their beliefs, traditions and customs relative to the management of their farming systems.

Rice and corn farmers predominated the three study areas with more than 64,000 hectares or 71% used for agricultural purposes. One hectare was the average landholding of the respondents who were all owner-operators.

Umingan clay loam was the type of the soil with type III climatic condition or “no pronounced dry season. Rice and corn were the major crops grown.

The prevailing farming system practices were cropping systems, cropping patterns, pre-and post-harvest operation, and production management. Generally, the farmer’s practices moderately affected their productivity.

The findings indicate that the farmers had different perceptions as regards to profitability, acceptability but similar perceptions as regards to environmental friendliness and sustainability; and that the farmers significantly differed in their perceptions regarding the degree of seriousness of their problems and concerns.

 

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS

Agbulos, Lawton Jr. C. 2002. Assessment on the Wood Using Furniture Industry in Bangued, Abra. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

Trees have an influence on the progress and welfare of man. This progress from a primitive cave dweller to his present civilized state cannot be told without frequent reference to trees and their products.

This study sought to determine the marketing strategies, and cost and return analysis in wood-based furniture enterprise in Bangued, Abra and to find out the socio-demographic profile of the furniture entrepreneurs, sources of raw materials and acquired products, best saleable products marketing practices, problems encountered and the suggested solutions.

Respondents of the study were those registered at the Office of the Department of Trade Industry, Bangued, Abra. There were 9 respondents out of 15 duly registered enterprises. Statistical tools used were percentages, frequency numbers, and ranking.

Results revealed that the female respondents outnumbered the male respondents and having an average age of 48.89, which implies that they are matured enough to run business. Majority of them had gone to tertiary education. Wood-based furniture enterprise was the main source of livelihood of the family.

Raw materials used were mostly from the premium species produced from small timber growers within and from nearby municipalities. Major operations in producing their own products and the marketing techniques were based from their experiences in managing the enterprise. Labor wage was based on the per piece basis.

Arifalo, Eberner I. 1984. Economic Analysis of Agroforestry Farms in the Makiling Forest Reserve. Compilation of Research Abstracts, UPLB College of Forestry, Laguna, Philippines

The need for development through policies, operations and researches to judge the wisdom of Agroforestry to the point of commercial exploitation was the basis for this study.

The results indicated that the Agroforestry farmers in the Makiling forest have been operating below the set standards for Agroforestry farming. Distribution of the gross farm family income ranged from P933.00 to P69,492.00. However, the total paid-out costs average was P1,915.25. Lack of credit facilities by the farmers remained a major constraint against the use of capitals. Hence, many of the farmers could not afford the cost of all necessary inputs to engender the profit level of a model Agroforestry practice.

In spite of the government's policy, the farmers were able to harvest crops throughout the year. Aside from the farm goods consumed by the farmers’ families, the local markets within the Laguna province were constantly supplied with Agroforestry farms products.

The study concluded by giving the alternatives means of assuring efficiency in the practice of Agroforestry, as well as the importance of the farmers’ closer tie with the government. On the other hand, the study advocated that the UP College of Forestry should become partners with the farmers for progress, while the government must continue to understand the forces that are relevant and interlinked to the traditional farmers and to the growth process at large.

Baledio, Alma P. 2002. The Perception of the Workers and Community in the Management of the Benguet State University Watershed (Wangal). BSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

The BSU has no specific policies and laws regarding the watershed management but bases its management on national policies and laws on environmental protection, specifically P.D. 705 known as Revised Forestry Code of the Phils.

This study determined the perceptions of workers and community residents in the management of BSU watershed in Wangal. Specifically, it looked on the respondent’s perception on the extent and importance of people’s participation in the management. Also, it identified the difficulties frequently met and the strategies commonly used.

The respondents were composed of 18 workers from BSU and 17 community residents, LTWD and DENR officials whose ages ranged from 21 and above.

The study used the descriptive research design with a structured questionnaire to gather data, statistical tools such as frequency, percentage, weighted mean, F-test, and cochran Q-test were used in treating the data.

The study found out that considering the respondent’s socio-economic profile, there were different perceptions. Looking to their age profile, older groups were more effective than the younger ones. Gender based, males were more effective than females and for the essential status, workers had a higher level of perception than community residents had. The common difficulties encountered were soil erosion and lack of information in the management of watershed. The strategies they perceived to be effective in the management were the tree planting, fencing the watershed area and assigning of forest guards in the watershed area.

The researcher recommends, therefore, that a campaign for full people participation in the management of the watershed is necessary. The best strategies found out to be effective by the respondents should also be implemented to attain maximum benefits from the watershed.

Butardo, Toribio, Ma. Zita et al. Socioeconomic Analysis of the Environmental Impacts of the Operations of the Makban Geothermal Project. Compilation of Research Abstracts, ERMP-IESAM, UPLB College, Laguna, Philippines

This socioeconomic and valuation study of the environmental effects of the operations of the Makban Geothermal Project was conducted to provide an objective assessment of the complaints of surrounding communities. Hedonic pricing, contingent valuation, replacement cost and preventive expenditure approaches were used to valuate the impacts on properties, health and crops.

The study showed that the geothermal project affects property values in the area. Further studies are recommended to validate the chronic effects of the geothermal operation on crops and health. However, just payments and mitigating measures are recommended to address the acute and direst effects of the project operation. A long-term solution suggested is the relocation of families situated within 100 meters of the complex. In addition, an environmental management plan incorporating appropriate livelihood and social engineering measures should be implemented preferably using the funds as mandated by the Department of Energy Implementing Rules and Regulations re: “Section 5 of RA 7638 and Local Government Code of 1991.” A long-term project land use plan should be also drawn detailing future expansion areas. Such expansion areas should be acquired before hand to prevent future conflict.

Caluya, Margarita P. 1987. Environmental and Socio-Economic Impacts of Selected Farming Systems in the Quiaoit River Watershed in Batac, Ilocos Norte., SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

The different descriptors of farming system and the indicators that influence their adoption have the following relationships: land use descriptors such as cropping intensity index (CII) were significantly affected by the number of parcels and family size; and percent area cultivated to tobacco was negatively related to farm are operator’s age. Labor use descriptors which include: percent hired labor was positively related to the number of parcels and farm area but negatively related to operator’s age and family size; percent unpaid labor family labor was positively related to family size, however, negative to farm area, number of parcels, years in school and number of adults with non-farm occupation; percent non-farm labor was positively related to years in school and number of adults with farm occupation. The percentage of expense due to fertilizer, pesticides and insecticides was negatively related to operator’s age. The output descriptor such as percent income from crop and livestock production was positively affected by the value of workstock/tools and by the number of adults with non-farm occupation, respectively.

 Income was significantly affected by total land area cultivated, area planted to tobacco, household size and the number of animals raised. Decisions on farm operations were primarily from the husband but in some cases the wife and the older children were involved.

An in-depth study of the three dominant farming systems: FS1 (rice-tobacco- corn + livestock and poultry), FS2 (rice-tobacco/garlic – corn + livestock and poultry) and FS3 (rice-tobacco-fallow + livestock and poultry) showed that cropping pattern was dependent on the availability of water. Majority of the respondents were share tenants tilling an average of 0.75 ha which were in scattered small parcels, 2-200 m away from their residence and from the river. On a per hectare basis, FS3 had the highest net farm profit. Though FS2 had lower income, farm practices were minimizing environmental degradation, so when considering profitability and ecological impact, FS2 was the most sustainable. The observed negative impacts of the continuous use of HYVs, commercial fertilizer, pesticides and insecticides were: rapid depletion of soil nutrients, higher incidence and worsening of plants and diseases; soil hardening and drying up; disappearance of beneficial insects and birds and; the perceived more and higher incidence of chemical related human and animal accidents and diseases. The production and profit have also become unstable. It can be concluded that the existing farming systems and accompanying technologies had brought problems and constraints such that alternative crops and technologies must be looked into to minimize ecological degradation while producing the needs of the people.

Casuga, Joselito. 2001. Profitability of Upland Farms in Barangay Narra Oeste San Fernando City, La Union. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

It seems that not many farmers are practicing agroforestry, hence the need for information to convince them that this is profitable and sustainable is needed. Upland farming system is now in the focus of sustainable development planning by the government.

The study was conducted to have a simple socio- economic profile of the farmers in the area; to determine the profitability of upland farms in the hillsides; to determine the cropping calendar by the farmers in their upland farms; and to determine the problems and perceived solutions of the farmers.

The data were obtained from 20 respondents. All the responses were consolidated, categorized, averaged and tabulated. Descriptive statistics was used in the study supplemented by percentages and averages.

Results showed that 30% of respondents were still in active force, 100% were married, and 75% were Roman Catholic. All respondents depended on farming as the source of their income. All the farmers experienced major problems in water shortage, lack of farm technology, and lack of farm machineries. The farmers perceived solution to dig a water source in some parts of their farm area such as deep-wells and irrigation system. Consultation with technicians from government agencies may help ease the problem and with the support of barangay council. All (100%) of the farmers seemed to be busy all year-round except the month of May that seemed to be vacant.

Agroforestry can be incorporated to improve the farming system thereby increasing the farmer's income.

Francisco, Herminia A., F. K. Mallion and Z. M. Sumalde. 1992. Economics of Dominant Forest Based Cropping Systems in Mt. Makiling Forest Reserve. Compilation of Research Abstracts, DAP, ERMP-EISAM, UPLB, CIDA, Laguna, Philippines

The report is an integrative analysis of findings from two studies: The Evaluation of Dominant Forest Base Cropping Systems and the Profitability Analysis of Selected Modules of Dominant Forest Based Cropping Systems.

Discussed in the report were the significant findings and their policy implications for the protection and management of MFR. Specifically, there were: (a) in-migration and internal population growth; (b) farm acquisition and fragmentation of land holdings over time; (c) the “push” and “pull” factors to upland migration; (d) farm holdings, equity and social stratifications; (e) evolution of dominant forest-based cropping systems; and (f) profitability analyses of dominant cropping systems in the area which include an analysis to determine household requirements being met by farm income considering various family life cycles of the households in MFR.

Gadia, Benjamin V. 2000. Socio-Economic Profile and Marketing of Bamboo-based Enterprise in La Union. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

In the Philippines, bamboo is generally known as kawayan or as the poor man’s timber. The plant, dubbed as a tallest grass, is now fully recognized by the science and business communities in the country as an export winner income, employment-generator and excellent reforestation crop. As such, it is a fast-growing plant and has many uses because of its unusual properties.

This study sought to determine the socio-economic profile and marketing of bamboo-based enterprise in La Union. Specifically, it sought to determine the socio-economic profile of people engaged in bamboo industries, problems encountered, marketing bamboo products, species used for raw materials, supplementary treatments and to relate the socio-economic profile on the bamboo enterprise and types of bamboo products.

There were six respondents involved in the study chosen from the municipalities of La Union. The respondents were those registered at the Department of Tourism and Industry in San Fernando City, La Union. Percentages, means, frequency counts, and chi-square test were the statistical tools used in the study.

Based on the results of the study, there were no significant differences in bamboo used and marketing practices of the respondents. Analysis between age, civil status, educational attainment background and bamboo enterprise, and types of products were found to be positively correlated but there were no significant result among the variables. The major problem encountered by the bamboo-furniture makers was lack of capital.

Guy, Peter. 1995. Agroecosystem Analysis and Rapid Rural Appraisal of Selected Sites in the Central Cordillera, Ifugao, Philippines. Compilation of Research Abstracts, ERMP-IESAM, Laguna, Philippines

This document is divided into three parts. The first part provides a description of the processes of Agroecosystem Analysis (AA) and rapid rural appraisal (RRA) as means for obtaining bio-physical and socioeconomic data about rural communities. The first process, AA, identifies key questions for research studies while the second, RRA, provides a process that allows development to be action focused and time effective. Both are widely used in rural development projects. The second part provides a description of the agroecosystem analysis of three barangays of the Province of Ifugao in the Central Cordillera, Philippines. The three barangays are Bimpal in the Municipality of Lamut, Haliap in the newly created municipality of Asipulo and Hucab in the Municipality of Kiangan. The third part provides a rapid rural appraisal of two of the same barangays, Binupal and Hucab, and also barangay Bolog in the municipality of Kiangan.

Mallion, F. K. and J. T. Dizon.1990. A Study of the Occupancy in Makiling Forest Reserve. Compilation of Research Abstracts, UPLB College of Forestry, Laguna, Philippines

This study was conducted to provide a situational analysis of the occupancy in the Mt. Makiling Forest Reserve. It surveyed 220 farmers/dwellers in the area, focusing on their demographic and socioeconomic profile; cultural values; needs and aspirations; disposition on matters at the community level; attitude on socially oriented forestry action programs or activities; extent of landholdings; perceived tenurial arrangement and/or preferences related to settlement or use of Makiling

Forest lands; and farming systems and conservation strategies on the whole. It used descriptive statistics such as means, frequency counts and percentage to analyze the data gathered.

The researchers found three modes of occupancy in Mt. Makiling, namely: farmland, settlement, farmland and settlement. They also found out that migration in the area has been a continuing process for the past years, one that will likely continue in the future considering the reserve’s attractiveness to

lowland migrants. The process had contributed to the transformation/conversion of large sections of the Makiling forest into agricultural and settlement purposes.

The occupants plan to stay permanently in the area and this long term commitment is consistently with their land use orientation which veers towards sustainability.

The farmers generally fall below the poverty threshold level and have a strong desire for increased family welfare and more secure land rights. Moreover, they have a positive attitude towards social forestry and a predisposition to be partners of the University in the management and conservation of Mt. Makiling’s resources.

The need for development assistance was identified in the following areas: organization of a farmer association/strengthening of community organizing capability; complementary economic opportunities; and support services (e.g. financial/credit, marketing, technological and physical).

This report contains some policy recommendations for program planning for and development of Mt. Makiling.

Mangaoang, E.O. 1987. Economic Evaluation of Selected Upland Farming Systems. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

The study aimed to determine the economic efficiency and productivity of existing farming system in selected farm areas of Bohol, Cebu and Siquijor Central Visayas Resources Management Project (CVRMP) – upland sites, to provide a basis in developing appropriate and efficient upland farm management system.

The specific objectives were: (1) to conduct a comparative economic analysis of the existing farming system practiced within the three selected CVRMP upland sites; (2) to help improve economic decision rules of the upland farmer through analysis of their farm management system; (3) to compare productivity and or profitability of farm management system; and (4) to identify problems that the upland farmers face within the project sites. General description of the selected upland site profile economic efficiency, input utilization and productivity and farm business analyses were done to achieve the desired objectives.

The result of the economic efficiency analysis showed that the average net present worth (NPW) per crop year for all sites was less than the average family income in Region VII and even lower than the national average. However, the computed benefit cost ratio (BCR) implies efficiency of farming system used in terms of input utilization. Low value of NPW is the result of the declined soil productivity and the practice of subsistence farming by most of the upland farmers.

Inputs utilization criterion indicates that the upland farming system practiced by the farmers were not capital intensive. The average man-labor days spent and cash expenditures incurred in farming were generally low for all sites. The value of multiple cropping index (MCI) for all areas implies intensives cultivation of farmlands.

The result of the multiple regression analysis showed that all of the variable inputs utilized in farming were at the stage of diminishing marginal productivity. The summation of marginal value product of the four variable inputs was highest in Cebu at P4,520.28, implying that the farmer system adopted within the area were the best productive. However, based on the result of the farm business analysis per hectare, farming system of Siquijor proved to be better.

The widespread massive soil erosion problem is a clear implication in appropriate, unsustainable, and ecologically unstable ways of farming within the selected upland sites. Problems related to marketing, awareness on better farming system accessibility and credit facilities were also common.

Nerida, Valentin O. 2001. Profitability of Bamboo Production in Degraded Forest Lands of District II La Union. BSc Thesis, DMMMSU, Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

The increasing demand for bamboo is one of the causes of fast depletion of the forest resource particularly on bamboo stands.

This study sought to determine the profitability of bamboo production in degraded forest land of District II La Union. Specifically, it sought to determine the economics of bamboo production problems encountered and other relevant information.

There were 54 respondents involved in the study chosen from nine municipalities. The data collected were analyzed using the descriptive statistical tool such as average, percentage and ranking.

Findings revealed that the average age of the respondents was 51, the youngest was 25 and the oldest was 80 years old. It can be implied from the result of the study that the income from bamboo per clump per year was relatively low but it was still considered profitable.

Ortiz, E. A. Jr.1983. Environmental Assessment of Fishery Resources in Magat Reservoir, Philippines. Compilation of Research Abstracts, UPLB College of Forestry, Laguna, Philippines

Transformation of the watershed into grasslands and agricultural lands at the expense of primary and secondary forest is a result of human interventions in the watershed. The July 16, 1990 earthquake represents a major perturbation that moved huge volumes of soil eroded along the mountain areas of Cordillera and Caraballo mountains (Philippines). This accelerated the sedimentation of the Magat reservoir.

Deposition of eroded materials into the Magat river ecosystem reduced algal growth and reportedly caused the temporary disappearance of some freshwater fishes. The occasional deposition of erosion materials in waterways during the rainy season continued to cause turbidity, sedimentation of waterways resulting in the decline of fish population. Data on the water quality of the reservoir before and after July 16, 1990 earthquake indicate disturbances in the watershed. The biological productivity of the reservoir before and after the calamity showed significant differences which could be accounted for the cumulative effects of changes in chemical and physical conditions. Declining fishery productivity of the reservoir affected the socio-economic condition of Magat fisherfolks though a decreased fish catch of 393,478 kg in 1984 to 54,823 kg in 1991 and a longer culture period of 5-6 up to 12 months.

Palafox, Ma. Elizabeth T. 1993 Assessment of the Performance and Impact of an Agroforestry Project in Ilocos Norte. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines.

The agroforestry project component of the Program on Strengthening Applied Research for the Development of Dryland Agriculture in Ilocos Norte was conducted to determine the following: (1) the extent of participation of project participants and the factors of affecting such participation; (2) the rate of survival of agroforestry crops and the biophysical factors affecting it; (3) the increase in income of participants and (4) the impact of project performance on sustainability, productivity and equity.

Thirteen percent (n=34) of the total population (n=451) was taken as respondents. Seventeen of them were farmer cooperators of the agroforestry project. Data on soil properties and survival rates of trees were taken from the demonstration site. Some information were taken from secondary source. Descriptive statistics, correlation and regression, and percentage difference were used in data analysis.

 Based on the findings of the study, the factors that significantly affected the extent of participation were: age, education, household size and land size.

Survival of the agroforestry crops is significantly affected by soil pH, and the amount of P and K in the soil. Rainfall variation partly explains variation in survival percentages. Species richness had no significant effect on the survival of agroforestry crops. The increase in income of the respondents was found to be brought about by the increased income from the lowland farm and not from the agroforestry farm or by other livelihood activities of the project. The study shows that the project was ecologically sustainable as indicated by the extent of soil and water conservation. For the impact of productivity, there was a minimal increase in terms of income from agroforestry farms. Most of the respondents’ income was derived from other on-farm activities in the lowland. Equity in income distribution was found to have improved and based on the benefits received from the project, there was a relatively equitable income distribution among all the farmer cooperators.

Paris, Thelma and Joyce Luis. 1990. Gender Analysis: How it Made a Difference in a Farming Systems Research Projects in Sta. Barbara, Pangasinan Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines.

This case study provides an example in which gender analysis was used to incorporate concerns for women in research design, testing, and evaluation. The study looked into the Farming Systems Research (FSR) project in Sta. Barbara, Pangasinan. The goal of the project was to develop technologies that will increase agricultural productivity and family welfare. Consequently, the Women’s Component was introduced to evaluate the waste in which the on-going research was integrating the women’s concern.

In each result, the study has shown how gender analysis can be a powerful tool in identifying family roles, women’s technology needs to increase productivity, reduce drudgery and increase the welfare of faming families and of women in particular. Women should be included among target groups, particularly in interventions on tasks that they traditionally perform. Moreover, it has also demonstrated that women’s concerns and interests can only be incorporated into FSR through concerted effort of a multi-disciplinary team and most important of all, through the commitment of administrators and policy makers.

Racoma, Alfredo Jr. R. 2002. Assessment of Foreign-Funded Community-Based Reforestation Projects in Ilocos Norte and Pangasinan. MSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad Benguet, Philippines

The Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) believes and recognizes the basic right of communities to organize with the major objective of harnessing individual capabilities for their common good. Hence, the DENR forged partnership with communities in the formulation, planning and implementation of its program and projects.

The study determined the activities participated in by people’s organizations in reforestation projects and their extent of participation assessed; the survival, height and diameter growths and vigor of commonly used species; and identified problems affecting the projects, and recommended actions to improve community-based reforestation.

The descriptive survey method was used in determining the percent survival, growth responses and vigor of the planted species.

Findings show that the reforestation activities participated in by the four people’s organizations involved were land-use survey, nursery establishment, seedling production, plantation establishment, protection and maintenance, and monitoring and evaluation. Their overall extent of participation in the different reforestation activities was low with an average of only 8.44 days per month. Nevertheless, they had a moderate participation in weeding and planting.

Of the three reforestation species studied in all the study sites, narra (Pterocarpus indicus Willd.) had the highest survival rate, followed by yemane (Gmelina arborea Roxb) and mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla king). In terms of growth, narra had the highest average height and diameter increments in three years. On vigor, narra had the best, closely followed by mahogany and yemane.

The serious problems encountered in the implementation of the different reforestation activities were slow processing of billing, delayed payment of billing, delayed validation of accomplishment, members do not work if wages are delayed, lack of technical expertise of assisting organizations, lack of commitment of some members, and lack of expertise of officers and members in terms of comprehensive site development.

The recommended actions to mitigate the problems included the prompt validation of accomplishment of people’s organizations in order to facilitate processing and payment of billing, inculcating fully the concept of community-based forest management through series of meetings, dialogues, focus group discussions, trainings and off-farm visits; selection of assisting organizations or non-government organizations that are financially capable and technically qualified to capacitate and train people’s organizations; having continuing information, communication and education to sustain commitment and interest; and preparing and training People’s Organizations socially and technically prior to project implementation.

 

KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES AND PERCEPTIONS

Allan, Frolaine M. 1997. Analysis of Perceptions, Attitudes, and Expectations of CARP-ISF Farmers in Abra Towards Agroforestry and its Management. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

The study was conducted in two CARP-ISF R & D Agroforestry sites located at Nagtipolan, Lagangilang, and Villa Mercedez, San Quintin in Abra.

The study aimed to determine the socio-economic characteristics and the perceptions, attitude, and expectation of farmer-beneficiaries toward the project. Data were gathered through personal interviews with the farmer-cooperators as the respondents. Structured interview schedule was used to gather the desired information.

Preliminary results showed that 80 % of the participants in Villa Mercedez perceived that mix planting was not applicable, while 20 % claimed that strip planting was more appropriate. In Nagtipolan, they enumerated mixed planting, strip planting, sloping agricultural land technology (SALT), and a combination of two or more of these schemes as applicable. Analysis showed that respondents had favorable attitude toward agroforestry and its management in both sites.

Moreover, the farmer-participants expected that with the agroforestry project, their farm production and income will increase. Also, they believe that agroforestry as a sustainable land use will improve the ecological condition of the project area.

Balonggaya, Federico C. 1997. Perceptions on Forest Management Strategies in Busol Watershed. MSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

Forest management is the bread and butter of forestry which is concerned on the application of business methods and technical forestry principles in the holistic operations of a forest property for the management and conservation of soil, water, and wildlife.

The study was designed to determine perceptions on the effectiveness of silvicultural treatments, forest protection measures and soil erosion control as forest management strategies in Busol Watershed Reservation- the study site. Also, the study came up with recommendations for other strategies to improve the sustainability of the watershed. A total of 112 respondents from four barangays in Baguio City and three barangays in Trinidad, Benguet were randomly interviewed. Also interviewed were 12 respondents from DENR, LGU, BWD, and NGOs.

Reforestation as a silvicultural treatment was perceived effective by respondents in Barangay Ambiong, Brookspoint-Aurora Hill, Pacdal and East Bayan Park, Baguio City and in Barangays Ambiong, Lamut-Beckel and Lubas, La Trinidad. A great majority of the respondents in all categories of age, educational attainment, and occupation agreed that the reforestation is a worthy occupation project. The project was 100 percent effective according to the perception of government employee respondents.

Saturation planting which is also a silvicultural treatment was perceived not effective according to 53 percent of the total number of respondents; that the project was found effective by 47 percent of respondents. The government employee respondents had very high perception since they considered the project as 100 percent effective.

In forest protection, fire-line was not effective according to a great majority (79%) of the respondents; it was, however, effective as perceived by a fewer number (21%) of the respondents. A greater number (58%) of the respondents considered foot patrol as effective; forty-two percent of the respondents perceived it otherwise, which means that said project was not effective. Likewise, the information and education campaign was perceived effective by as many as 53 percent of the total number of respondents, whereas less number (47%) of the respondents said that it (IEC) was not effective.

The implementation of both Section 68 and 69 of Presidential Decree (PD) 705 was perceived or found not very effective. More (79%) respondents said that Section 68 was not effective with respect to its implementation. A lot more (89%) of the respondents perceived that Section 69 was not effective relative to its implementation. In the case of Section 69, only 21 percent of the respondents perceived its implementation as effective. It was only 11 percent effective in the case of Section 69 implementation.

As generally perceived by implementer-respondents from DENR, forest management strategies in the form of silvicultural treatments (reforestation and saturation planting) were quite effective. Also, forest protection measures particularly the implementation of PD 705, Section 68 and information and education campaign were somewhat effective. Respondents came out with the idea that the effectiveness of the other forest protection strategies including the erosion control in the form of wattling was doubtful, that is, these were rather ineffective.

Recommendations to improve the sustainability of Busol Watershed include the intensification of assisted natural regeneration (ANR); strict implementation of forestry laws, rules, and regulations; and massive tree planting to be undertaken in a cooperative manner or jointly by various agencies or sectors.

Bao-idang, Conrado C. 2000. Observations and Perceptions of Local Residents at Cabitin, Mankayan, Benguet on Community-Based Watershed Management. MSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

The Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) reported that the rate of forest degradation annually is very high. In response to this situation, the government targeted to revegetate these areas. Hence to solve the nation forest management problems, people's participation in management is a key factor in solving the country's forest problem.

The study determined the major causes of watershed denudation, degree of seriousness of the effects of the major problems on the watershed, the perceived economic importance of the Community-Based Watershed Management (CBWM) reforestation sub-project, and the perceived impacts on the ecology/environment of the community. Likewise, the study determined the priority strategies for the enhancement of the implementation of the sub-project within the watershed. A total of 60 respondents within the project site and adjacent sitios in Cabitin, Mankayan, Benguet were randomly interviewed.

The observed major problems threatening the watershed were forest fire, mining wastes and activities, and kaingin making. Their adverse effects were shortage of water, occurrence of erosion and landslide, pollution, and change in temperature.

The sub-project is perceived to restore the degraded watershed and to the improvement of water yield, temperature, vegetation and control erosion/landslide. Other positive effects of the sub-project were employment and improved income of the watershed occupants.

To enhance the implementation of the sub-project, the following were the deemed leading strategies: implementation of fire prevention/protection program, implementation of agro-forest and identification of livelihood projects. To further improve the present scenario and condition of the project site, recommendations include having a massive campaign and extension program on forest protection; intensifying the IEC program to make the people get fully aware of the importance of protecting the study area; enjoining the Lepanto Consolidated Mining Company to intensify its forest protection and rehabilitation program; and highly considering the vegetative and structural measure of watershed rehabilitation.

Colingan, Nelson F. et al. 1995. Indigenous Knowledge and Practices of Women Swiddeners in Tucucan, Bontoc, Mt. Province. BSc Thesis, Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

The Philippines, until today, is largely agricultural. Rice farming is still predominant.

Accompanying rice farming is swiddening agriculture or in certain areas, even cash crop farming. Alongside the swidden agriculture system is the maintenance of a wealth of experiences in soil conservation, water conservation and various forms of sustainable utilization of resources. Furthermore, among those who continues and upholds these practices, it is the women sector that remained steadfast in the continuity and discontinuity of sustainable practices.

The study was conducted to look into the 1K and practices of Tucucan women in their swidden farms.

Using Individual In-depth Interview (IIDI) and Key Informants (KI) Interview administered to the selected women respondents, the study explored the roles played by women into swidden agriculture such as their 1K and practices in relation to soil conservation and other form practices.

There were 14 respondents of the study, ten women and the remaining four were composed of the selected key Informants or the so called panglakayen within the community.

The semi-structured interview guide was the primary instrument employed by the researchers in obtaining data. The questions were basically in their general form that an in-depth understanding by the dynamics of swiddening is captured through probing in each question depending on the answer of the respondents.

Results of the study showed that women were the primary holders of 1K and practices in the context of swiddening in Tucucan, Bontoc. Their knowledge and practices were shown on the women’s knowledge as to soil conservation, water conservation, maintenance of the swidden farm and the proper way of planting. The study also revealed that the agricultural cycle which the I-Tucucan followed in their rice farming was seen in the form of rituals such as the pesek-rest day during harvest season.

Identifiable factors that are likely to affect the practice of swiddening in the area were also seen by the respondents. One of these is migration due to need of employment outside the community need for higher education, other opportunities that were brought about by new ideas such as modern technologies, and spending more time in other activities such as recreational facilities like going to movie houses, etc.

However, the respondents still believed that swiddening will not cease to operate within the community even with the influence of these factors. So, swiddening is still considered as a major source of livelihood in the community.

Thus, this study pointed out the need to document and capture these indigenous knowledge and practices of indigenous women who are into swidden agriculture. As shown in the study, there were various practices in agriculture that are environment-friendly, which would be adopted by modern day farmers, given the proper support.

Duldulao, Anacleto C. 1975. Kaingeros’ Perceptions and Attitude Towards Forest Conservation in Mt. Makiling. Compilation of Research Abstracts, UPLB College of Forestry, Laguna, Philippines

The study was conducted in the barrios surrounding Mt. Makiling forest reserve. The area was located within the municipalities of Bay, Los Baños and Calamba in Laguna and the town of Sto. Tomas in Batangas.

The objectives of the study were: to find out the socio-economic characteristics of the kaingeros in Mt. Makiling; to determine their perceptions of (a) the nature of the forest, (b) the values of forest, (c) the consequences of forest destructions, (d) the nature of forest conservation, (f) kaingin – making as an occupation, (g) the alternatives to kaingin-making, and (h) the consistency of kaingin law enforcement; to know the attitudes of the kaingeros towards; (a) offered alternatives to kaingin-making, (b) giving free service to reforestation work, (c) forcible resettlement of kaingeros, (d) punishment without trial of forest destroyers, (e) joint search for solution to the kaingin making problem, and (f) national welfare; to find out the kaingin practices employed in Mt. Makiling; and to find out the relationships of the significant variables in the study such as attitude and perception, age and perception, level of education and perception, family income and attitude, and attitude and perceived consistency of kaingin law-enforcement.

The data were gathered through personal interviews using a 35-page interview schedule from 186 randomly selected kaingero-respondents.

Among the findings in the study were: there were three types of kaingeros in Mt. Makiling; many of the kaingeros were not poor; the majority of respondents had high perceptions of the natural characteristics of the forest, values of forest, consequences of forest destruction, objectives of forest conservation but only 11 percent had favorable attitude towards forest conservation.

The other major findings were: the value orientation of the kaingeros was primarily towards themselves and their families and only remotely towards public welfare; the majority of them aspired to give their children a college degree; most of them did not have alternative means of earning a living; only one-fourth of the respondents indicated a desire to change their occupation; a majority of them thought that kaingin-making was profitable.

A majority of the respondents also believed that the prohibition of kaingin-making was justified but most of them opposed punishment of kaingeros without trial. The majority favored the idea of a joint search for the solution of the kaingin problem by representative of both the government and the kaingero group.

It is recommended that the study should be replicated in other places in the country to determine if the findings would be the same. Further, the economics of kaingin-making should also be studied.

 

 

POLICY

Cardenas, V.R. 1989. Enhancing Community Management System in Farming Systems Development. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

The institutional and socio-structural issues in enhancing the community management systems (CMS) for farming systems development (FSD) should be studied. The alternative community management must be based on site-specific, institutional and socio-structural arrangement on a clearly understood type of social organizations.

 

Some issues on CMS are related to the degree of decentralization of administration, coordination of task of various groups, how to design and implement effective delivery systems, how to get local participation and mobilize local sources, and how to get equitable distributions of the benefits of services and access to them.

To enhance the management of community affairs, the following ideas or concerns must be addressed:

Relevant research and delivery of extension services are keys to better technology utilization/adoption.

The local institutions’ capability need to be improved to ensure that the rural people can govern their own affairs and manage their resources. Social institutions and linkages that will enhance people’s access to and control and management of development resources must be created or improved. Socio economic compatability of externally induced project designs must be ensured. Donor agencies must insist that more local institutions are built up and that greater participation of the beneficiaries is ensured. There must be a recognition of “even” development of social economic systems; and a recognition of the vulnerability and failures of communities to manage the resources from the donor.

Thus, enhancement of CMS largely depends on the even development of: (a) technical and social technologies; (b) people who will use these technologies; and (c) appropriate social institutions that will facilitate people’s access to technology and other support services.

Coxhead, Ian. 1995. Soil Erosion in the Philippines: Do Government Policies Matter? Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

In the Philippines as elsewhere in the developing world, high and increasing rates of soil erosion and land degradation in the sloping upland agricultural areas pose a challenge to government. The roots of the problem are long run in nature: increasing agricultural population growth relative to a more or less fixed land area. There is little prospect for government policies to effect rapid change in the underlying economic and institutional conditions that promote upland migration and land colonization for agriculture. Accordingly, efforts to reduce soil erosion gave been relegated mainly to case-by-case, project based approaches. This paper argues that the potential for policy reforms having short-run impacts on erosion in sloping upland areas is greater than usually thought, and indeed that such reforms are almost certainly necessary co-requisites of project-based soil conservation efforts if the latter are to have positive long term-effects.

Duldulao, Anacleto C. 1981. The Implications of Forest Occupancy Management on Natural Resources on Conservation. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines.

Forest Occupancy Management (FOM), if implemented properly, may greatly minimize if not stop kaingin making. It will require P1M annually, but it means helping the kaingineros develop forest land to uplift their socio-economic status and to achieve the government’s objective of restoring permanent vegetation.

FOM needs a continuing census of forest occupants; survey of denuded and partially denuded public forests; establishment of profitable market; intensification of livestock dispersal; controlled or guided use of public forest lands; development of cottage industries; putting under contract the reforestation and forest protection projects; development of sericulture; putting up cooperative nurseries; and tapping the Barangay council for forest protection. It should apply both the socio-economic and punitive approaches wherein the rich and powerful are not spared.

Garrity, Dennis P. 1998. Participatory Approaches to Catchment Management: Some Experience to Build Upon. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

Asian watersheds have the highest sediment loads in the world. Nevertheless, within limits, the evidence indicates that it is possible for smallholders to engage in farming and management of natural forest resources in both productive and conservation-effective manner. Successful watershed management is built on two pillars: sound, practical technical innovation and participatory institutional innovation. Agroforestry has a key role to play in both. Agroforestry is increasingly conceived as a framework for a whole-landscape management within a community and ecological context. Agroforestry research and development is creating a much wider array of practical solutions that reduce the tension in achieving both the environmental service functions of watersheds and the productivity functions essential to the livelihood of the dense rural populations that inhabit them.

Best-bet’ agroforestry systems are reviewed for the three major upland ecosystems within Asian watersheds: the forest margins, imperata grasslands, and permanently farmed hillslopes. The environmental impacts of complex agroforests, smallholder timber-and-fruit tree production systems, improved indigenous fallow management systems, and contour vegetative strip systems are discussed in the context of the above issues. Selected watershed management projects in the Philippines and Thailand are then examined to draw conclusions on the effective pathways toward effective land husbandry and local natural resource management. Application of the concept of community landscape mosaics as a tool is highlighted. Lessons from these cases indicate that when local communities are allowed to capture the direct benefits of improved systems through tenural security and involvement of decision making, they will be firm partners in riversing the environmental degradation of Asian watersheds. We need to work much harder to evolve workable approaches that enhance rather than depress the real participation of local people in the management of watershed resources.

Hardwood, R.R. & I.C. Bolo. 1989. The Organizational and Management Requirements of Farming Systems Development. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

The dominant scientific paradigm, Newtonian, that guides the scientific community now stresses reductionism, where farming systems (FS) research is seen in the context of system approach, and where scientific support is seen to be greater in the near future.

The primary focus of FS development is the upland and hilly land area, where the systems approach is utilized at its maximum. Plants and animals interact closely in the systems and that the development agenda is broad and multiple factors are interrelated.

Integrating the FS program into the programs of regular line agencies is important. It would also be best if such program is open for integration and participation of other institutions, private and public, through normal backstopping channels so as not to isolate the institutions. Finally, it is important the program be operational and impact-oriented rather than research-oriented as were many of the FS projects of the past.

Mercado, Agustin R. Jr., Marcelino Patindol and Dennis P. Garrity. 2000. The Landcare Experience in the Philippines: Technical and Institutional Innovations for Conservation Farming. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

Sustainable land-use is one of the focal issues in the debate about rural development in the Philippine Uplands were about 18 million people eke out a living. Control hedgerow farming

with leguminous trees has come to be viewed as an important agroforestry technology to ensure food security, alleviate poverty and protect the environment. This paper relates to our experiences in a participatory approach to develop technology and institutions for agroforestry at the ICRAF research site in Claveria, Northern Mindanao, Philippines. For several years we focused our effort in assessing the management strategies to addressed key technical constraints of the contour hedgerow system. We observed that adoption by farmers is low. The reasons for this include high labor, establishment and maintenance of the hedgerows, resource competition above and below ground between the hedgerows and associated crops, limited value-added from the hedgerow prunings, and poor species adaptation.

Efforts were refocused towards finding alternative system that will address the technical and institutional issues of conservation farming. It was found that natural vegetative filter strips (NVS) provide simple solution to the technical constraints of soil conservation on slopes. These are buffer strips that are laid out on the contour in which the natural vegetation is allowed to regrow into a thick, protective cover. NVS also provide a foundation for farmers to evolve to complex Agroforestry systems with fruit and timber trees. We now see a tremendous surge of adoption of this system. Adoption has been enhanced by the Landcare approach.

Landcare is a movement of farmer-led organizations supported by the local government that share knowledge about sustainable and profitable agriculture on sloping lands while conserving natural resources. The approach has developed into a dynamic voluntary movement called the Landcare movement. There are now over 3000 farmers involved in this movement. As the Landcare groups began to grow, the local government units (municipal and barangay) have given enthusiastic support. This has involved the contribution of funds, technical assistance and policy support to the movement. Today, the Landcare movement has grown to over 250 groups in five municipalities in northern, central, eastern and southern Mindanao.

Perrens, S.J. and Trustrum N.A. Assessment and Evaluation for Soil Conservation Policy. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines.

Soil is a basic resource in which all life including human survival and development depends. Unfortunately, it is also a resource being wasted. Land degradation that is, unfit for agriculture maybe caused by soil erosion, water logging, stalinization, desertification and other processes that reduce land quality and quantity. Soil conservation is needed to save what is left of this resource. For conservation to take place, policy to be developed should have the following key elements: appropriate land use, soil management, and surface management. Overall, a policy must be translated to various agencies and levels of government to achieve actions from specific groups whose day to day decisions and activities directly affect the loss of soil from the land. These levels are: policy-making, planning, programs and practices.

On any landscape, an assessment is required to determine the factors that govern the capability of the land for a range of purposes. There are two separate sections of the assessment process described in the report: identification, description and planning, and quantification and evaluation. These sections deliver the data and information needed to formulate and implement policies. Nevertheless, it is still apparent that the greatest need in the area of soil conservation is for more knowledge and awareness. Thus, policy for soil conservation should also include elements of education, training and research.

 

 

TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER

Cerna, Lapu-Lapu L. and John B. Jackson. 1992. Experiences on Farmer to Farmer Adaptive Agroforestry Research. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

This report highlights the Mag-Uugmad Foundation, Inc. experiences on agroforestry adoption and farmer-initiated research and development centering in its Soil and Water Conservation Program in Argao, Pinamungahan and Guba in the watersheds of Cebu, being one of the most denuded watershed areas and one of the most populated cities in the country. Hence, there is a dire need of leveling economic and industrial development with resource conservation and rehabilitation.

The Foundation recognized initial farmer research and development efforts, those practices done before the start of the project in 1981. They tried to develop these research and development efforts by initially setting an example of other appropriate soil and water conservation methods among five willing farmers in the area. Activities such as small- scale experimentation, cross visits, seminars and training courses, farmer quarterly meetings, and mutual help groups were then initiated by the Foundation to stimulate, to support and strengthen farmer-based research activities.

Applicable regenerative agricultural technologies have been generated and are being practiced by the farmers. These technologies generally deal with the problem of soil erosion combining vegetative and mechanical measures. It was also discussed in the article how each basic component of soil and water conservation technology, centering on soil fertility, crop production and water harvesting, is applicable in various situations in the field.

Consolacion, Cipriano C. 1982. Determinants of Land Use Patterns in Highland Areas. Compilation of Research Abstracts , SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C. Philippines

One thousand fifty three randomly selected residents of Benguet, Ifugao, Kalinga- Apayao and Mountain Province were interviewed to determine the cultural, socio-economic and environmental variables affecting the respondents existing land use patterns. Mixed cropping and varied vegetable farming were common in the province of Benguet. In Ifugao, mixed vegetable and rice cropping were popular. In Kalinga- Apayao where irrigation was available, two cropping of rice was commonly practiced. In areas at higher elevation, only one cropping, which was basically rainfed was practiced. A combination of gravity irrigation from rivers and springs, groundwater and rainwater were the sources of irrigation. Some reasons enumerated by the farmers for following the currents crop pattern were: adaptability to local conditions, established village traditions, personal choice and profitability of the cropping pattern. The economic factors affecting land use include price support, labor supply and cost, credit or capital, infrastructure, government technologies and market facilities. The social factors affecting land use were religious beliefs, incentives, less superstitious and more open-minded than the older ones. The environmental factors affecting the land use were climate, soil, crop adaptability, water supply and technology.

Enkiwe, E.B. 1996. Comparative Study on the Survival and Early Growth of Palosapis (Anisoptera thurifera) Planted in Open and Second Growth Dipterocarp Forest Area. Compilation of Research Abstracts, ERDS, DENR-CAR, Loakan, Baguio City, Philippines

Nursery-raised seedlings (NSR) of Palosapis are preferred over wildlings in plantation establishment. This is because NSR had higher percentage survival in the field compared with those of wildlings.

Interaction between the planting materials (wildlings and nursery raised seedlings) and the site condition (open and partially shaded) had no significant variations. This means that the planting materials can survive and grow in both areas provided the plants are accorded with necessary protection, care and maintenance.

Fujisaka, Sam. 1989. A Method for Farmer-Participatory Research and Technology Transfer: Upland Soil Conservation in the Philippines. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

Although farmer participation has been viewed as important in on-far adaptive research, it has often been superficial and has not meaningfully incorporated farmers’ perspectives. Even efforts to control erosion lagged behind in farmer-participatory research on soil nutrient management. Hence, the study describes the use of a method in understanding farmers’ perceptions to determine research priorities that integrates the different concerns and contributions of both farmers and scientists. It also discusses farmer-to-farmer technology transfer, the participation of resource poor farmers in the adoption of agroforestry technology, and a range of interlinked and mostly agronomic and biophysical research issues.

The study concluded that although farmer participation has long been acknowledged, there are only few projects with meaningful interactions with local people. It supports the idea that participation is definitely a two-way process. The participation paradigm should progress from the “experts know best” concept. Knowing now that both experts and local people have unique areas of expertise which collectively provide a better basis for development than either alone. It also concluded that farmers’ evaluation in identifying research issues and in adopting technologies to specific local circumstances.

Laquihon, Warlito A. 1991. The Development and Diffusion of an Upland Farming System: The SALT (Sloping Agricultural Land Technology) Experience. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

The Mindanao Baptist Rural Life Center developed the Sloping Agricultural Land Technology (SALT) in the late 1970’s for the Mindanao upland farmers with the objectives to: (1) Conserve topsoil; (2) preserved soil fertility and prevent soil erosion; and (3) increase productivity. Most of the center’s crop tests pertain to corn since it is the staple food and grain crop of the upland farmers in Mindanao. The influence of the Leucaena on corn yields and how they will respond to minimum fertilizer with maximum production are areas of concern of the center.

In 1981, 12 upland farmers near the center became the

pioneer SALT farmer- cooperators. Support such as seeds and materials worth P500.00 and field visits by center’s extension workers facilitated SALT adoption.

In 1982, SALT was diffused throughout Mindanao by the center through its church groups. Baptist churches and their entities were made as points of entry for SALT. Later on, different public and private organizations, locally and internationally, picked up SALT and disseminated it to their clientele.

Librero, Aida R. 1989. Technology Transfer and Farmers’ Participation in Farming Systems Development. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

The active involvement of farmers is very important especially in technology transfer. Technology transfer can be defined through four basic components: the source, the message or technology, the channels and the receiver. Each of these components can be differentiated based on farmer’s participation.

The paper highlights the rate of technology adoption for the different commodities and farming systems. These commodities include potato, cabbage, strawberry, coffee, mango and cacao. And farming systems such as coconut-based and hillyland farming systems applied as well as the reason behind the low rate or the factors affecting adoption or non-adoption of technologies among farmers. The sources of technical information are co-farmers, friends and relatives for the different commodities. The role of the farmer leader primarily is to encourage participation among co-farmers vary as: initiator, innovator, decision-maker, organizer, educator, adviser, monitor, project demonstrator, and disseminator or as facilitator. Finally farmers should be mobilized into an organization, which will be significant to enhance technology adoption and from where farmers can actively participate and directly influence in the formulation and implementation of programs.

Metin, R.L. et al. 1992. Technology Transfer in the Uplands; Some of DENR’s Experiences in Participatory Agroforestry Development. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

The report centers of the experience of DENR in policy and program development specifically addressing environmental destruction and the chronicles of poverty and inequity issues that goes with it. It was noted with particular interest the innovative approach of Family Occupancy Management (FOM), Family Approach to Reforestation (FAR), Communal Tree Farm (CTF), and Integrated Social Forestry (ISF) Program as against the punitive and state centered approach of the government during the early 50’s to late 70’s. The authors delved into how the indigenous people, upland dwellers and migrants who saw no opportunity in the feudal lowland situation could be partners in forest protection and conservation.

Experiences and lessons learned under the different projects of DENR, giving emphasis on the integrated social forestry program, were identified and valued.       

Suarez, Vedasto G. 1978. Soil Conservation and the Educational Process. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

The schools participated in the meaningful utilization of land resources with an objective of improving the resources management and productivity. This paper is outlined following the three levels of instructional education: elementary, secondary and tertiary. For each level, soil conservation concepts, principles and practices are embedded in each educational level.

In elementary education, projects such as alay tanim, profem or tree planting and reforestation; and green revolution or food production were used to intensify pupils’ learning on soil conservation. There were also curriculum materials where soil erosion concepts are woven into curricular experiences, one of these is elementary agriculture.

In the secondary level, practical arts (DAO 20 series of 1973) is required in the fields of agricultural arts where soil conservation is one of the topics relating to soil fertility and horticultural crops. Also vocational agriculture is offered when resources permits. Specifically it dealt with practices and principles of crop and animal production. Special vocational schools also offer secondary agricultural education patterned to DAO 23 of 1973. Only in agricultural schools do the students take the principles and practices of soil conservation in relation to crop production.

Lastly, at the collegiate level, soil conservation as an approach is more formal and more in depth. A number of schools, state colleges and universities are offering agriculture as a source.

At the end of each instructional level, the author presented recommendations to further improve and expand the learning, which the students and their teachers have.

Talabero, Valentin and Nona Apitong. 1994. Community - Based Agroforestry Technology Transfer Approach: The Mapili Experience. Compilation of Research Abstracts, SRDC Building, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Q.C., Philippines

This paper documents the comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program – Integrated Social Forestry (CARP-ISF) Agroforestry livelihood project complemented in barangay Mapili, Iloilo. The Project aimed to improve the poverty situation and the degraded state of the environment in the area through the introduction of a sustainable upland farming system (Agroforestry Technology Transfer). The paper describes the different activities undertaken in relation to the project namely: site selection, community entry, identification and capacity building of potential community leaders, community immersion, core group formation, establishment of demonstration area, formation of farmers association, and construction of farm structures. It presents some of the project accomplishment in the areas of production, organization and management, and linkages. It also discusses the impact of the project on people’s income and participation, particularly when their association was recognized as the most outstanding farmers’ association among the 47 CARP-ISF associations

nationwide. The project’s experience has generated lessons for project implementers and participants. The lessons learned are the following:

Community organizing is a key factor in ensuring technology infusion and institutionalization.

The needs of the community must be identified and addressed during the project documentation

A “no dole-out, no subsidy” approach should be emphasized.

Social and economic indicators should be determined with the participation of the farmers for them to internalize the project’s concepts, visions and objectives.

The community- based approach to agroforestry technology transfer must be geared toward improving the life of a strong and unified community and not just of an individual.

The strategies and approaches during the replication process must conform to the values, attitudes and culture of the target community.

Unconditional commitment and determination on the part of the extension worker are needed to replicate the community- based approach in other areas.

 

 

References

 

BSU Graduate Library, La Trinidad, Benguet

BSU Main Library, La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

BSU Mini Forestry Library, La Trinidad Benguet

BSU Research and Extension Library, La Trinidad, Benguet

Developments in Agroforestry Research. 1997. Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development

DMMMSU Library (Main), Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

DMMMSU Library (Forestry), Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

ILLARDEC, Batac, Ilocos Norte, Philippines

MMSU, Batac, Ilocos Norte, Philippines

Research Abstracts. Sericulture Research and Development Institute. DMMMSU Bacnotan, La Union, Philippines

WOCAT. 2002. Abstracts of Researches on Soil and Water Conservation in the Philippines.